Chapter One: Introduction to Agriculture
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn the meaning and branches of Agriculture, importance of Agriculture, and relationship between Agriculture and other subjects. The competencies developed will enable you to appreciate the importance of agriculture and use agricultural principles and practices in your daily life.
Think
"The foundation of life, feeding us and supporting our communities"
Meaning of Agriculture
You have probably seen people at school, at home, or nearby neighbours doing activities related to those shown in Figures 1.1 (a-f). Look at these pictures then try to do Activity 1.1.
Figure 1.1(a) - (f): Pictures related to some of the activities carried out in different places
Activity 1.1
- Observe the pictures presented in Figures 1.1 (a) to (f) then:
- Write down the activity related to or represented in each of the figures.
- Write down the meaning of agriculture in relation to the pictures presented in Figures 1.1 (a) to f).
Agriculture is another term for farming. It involves growing and harvesting crops and looking after animals. This work includes caring for crop plants, collecting the crops, preparing them for use, keeping them safe in storage, and selling them. It also includes taking care of animals such as cattle, chickens, bees and fish. The main aim of agriculture is to produce food. This is important because it helps to feed more and more people around the world and it ensures that everyone has enough to eat.
Agriculture is a mixture of science and art. Scientists use science to help farming get better. They come up with new ideas and technologies, for example, using special techniques to improve crops and animals. This means they can develop new varieties of crops and animal breeds that are better. Scientists also use Chemistry knowledge to make fertilisers for plants to grow better by giving them the nutrients they need. Likewise, scientists use Biology and Chemistry to control crop pests and diseases. This means that they use the knowledge about living things and Chemistry to manage and prevent problems associated with diseases and harmful insects that can harm crops and animals.
Farming is not just about science. It also involves using our hands and our brains. This is called the art of farming. For example, when we do physical work on the farm such as building structures or using tools, we are practising the art. We also use our brains to make important decisions. We decide what crops to grow or animals to raise, how much to grow, and how to do it. We also think about when and where to buy things we need for farming, for example, seeds and tools, and where to sell our products. Therefore, farming is also an art of using our hands and our brains to make crops and animals grow successfully.
Exercise 1.1
- How does agriculture contribute to the production of food?
- In what ways do scientists use science to improve farming?
- How does the art of farming contribute to the success of crop and animal farming?
Branches of Agriculture
You have learnt that agriculture is both an art and a science. It involves different activities from the beginning to the end of producing animal and crop products. To do these activities well, we need to study specific fields of agriculture. These fields are also called branches of agriculture. Agriculture is broadly divided into five branches as shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: Major branches of agriculture
Crop production | Animal production | Soil Science | Agricultural engineering | Agricultural economics
Crop production
Crop production involves different activities from planting seeds to selling the crops. Here are some of these activities:
- Planning what crops to grow;
- Preparing land for planting;
- Planting the seeds;
- Caring for the crop plants by giving them water and nutrients;
- Protecting the plants from pests and diseases;
- Harvesting the produce when they are ready;
- Handling and processing the harvested produce;
- Storing the produce; and
- Selling the produce.
These activities together form the crop production value chain. It is important to do each activity properly to ensure quality and high crop yields. Different types of crops can be grown for different uses. Some examples are cereals, pulses, oil crops, horticultural crops and aquatic crops such as seaweed and Azolla.
Animal production
Animal production involves different activities from raising animals to selling them and or their products. Here are some of these activities:
- Planning how to raise animals;
- Providing housing for the animals;
- Feeding the animals;
- Helping the animals to produce their young ones;
- Collecting products from the animals;
- Handling and processing animals and their products;
- Storing the products; and
- Selling animals and their products.
These activities together form the animal production value chain. It is important to do each activity properly to ensure the highest yield and quality of products. Many different types of animals can be raised, such as cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry and fish. When raising livestock, we get various animal products such as meat, milk, eggs, and honey. It is important to plan well and implement good animal production practices to meet the demand for animal products.
Soil Science
Soil Science is a part of Agriculture that studies soil. It involves studying the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil. By learning soil science, we can manage soil better for growing different crops, including animal feeds. Soil is important because it provides a place for plants to grow and it gives them nutrients. It also helps to filter and store water and is a home to many organisms. Understanding soil helps farmers to make good decisions about how to manage their land and improve their crops.
Agricultural engineering
Agricultural engineering uses science and technology to make tools, equipment, machines and other agricultural structures. This helps to solve problems and make farming better. Agricultural engineers design things such as irrigation systems for supplying water to the crops, and machines for land preparation, planting and harvesting. In short, agricultural engineering uses science and technology to improve efficiency, productivity and quality in farming.
Agricultural economics
Agricultural economics focuses on managing resources to make profit. Resources like land, capital, workers, and business skills are used in farming. These resources are also known as factors of production. They need to be used wisely in order to reduce costs of production and increase income. This is done by proper planning, increasing yields, reducing costs, and finding the best prices for products. Research in agricultural economics helps to find ways to improve productivity and make farming more profitable.
Exercise 1.2
- Why is it important to do well in each of the basic activities in crop and animal production?
- How can soil science help farmers improve their crop yields?
- Why is agricultural engineering important in modern farming?
- How can agricultural economics help farmers reduce costs and increase income?
Importance of agriculture
Agriculture provides food, raw materials for industries, medicinal products, career, entrepreneurial and recreational opportunities, and it contributes to foreign exchange. It is an area that touches many aspects of the lives of Tanzanians. Agriculture is a cornerstone of Tanzania's economy. It provides livelihoods to about 65.6 % of the population, directly or indirectly.
(a) Provision of food
Farming in Tanzania is key to feeding the nation. The country produces a variety of crops, such as cereals, pulses and different types of fruits and vegetables. Farming also provides animal products such as meat, milk and eggs. These agricultural products are what we eat. If there is no enough food, people will starve and become weak. Therefore, agriculture is like a back-up to make sure that we always have enough food to eat to meet our dietary needs and make us strong.
(b) Supplying raw materials for industries
Agriculture is important for industries in Tanzania as it supplies raw materials. For example, cotton is used in the textile industries, cattle provides hides, while goats and sheep provide skins for the leather industries. Other crops play an important role in food processing industries. For example, maize in maize flour, fruits for fruit juices, and vegetables for canned products. Moreover, agriculture provides raw materials for the chemical industry. These are used to produce fertilisers and pesticides, which are important for the country's agriculture sector. Therefore, agriculture is not just about producing food. It is also about supporting other industries by providing the raw materials they need to operate.
(c) Provision of entrepreneurial and career opportunities
Agriculture opens up many business and job opportunities. These are not just in farming, but also in related areas. For example, people can work in food processing and marketing. Processing involves changing raw agricultural products into something else. For example, maize can be processed into maize flour. Marketing involves selling these products to customers. Entrepreneurial opportunities also exist in the food value chain. This includes steps from growing crops to selling the final product. For example, someone could start a business of growing crops, processing them, or selling them. Therefore, agriculture is not just about farming. It also provides many opportunities for people to start their businesses or find jobs in different sectors related to agriculture.
(d) Creation of medicinal products
Agriculture helps us to stay healthy. Many medicines come from plants. Farms in Tanzania grow many plants that can be used to make these medicines. Some of these plants include vegetables, herbs and spices that have medicinal properties. These medicinal plants can help to manage diseases. Therefore, farming not only provides food but also contributes to our health by providing the raw materials needed to create medicinal products.
(e) Offering recreational and tourism opportunities
Agriculture can be fun too. People can visit farms and learn about farming in a leisure way. They can also be involved in carrying out some activities on the farm. This is called agritourism. Agritourism enables farmers to earn more money. Therefore, agriculture not only provides food. It also offers chances for people to learn about farming and have fun. This can also help farmers earn more money to keep their farms running and invest more to make even more money.
(f) Contributing to foreign exchange
Agriculture helps Tanzania to earn money from other countries. It is done by exporting crops such as cashews, coffee, fruits, spices and flowers. It also involves exporting animal products such as meat and milk. This brings in a lot of money from abroad. Therefore, agriculture not only provides food. It also helps Tanzania to earn money from other countries. This foreign money is used to buy things that Tanzania doesn't make them.
Exercise 1.3
- Given a chance to establish an agricultural business in Tanzania, what kind of business would you engage in? Give reasons.
- Tanzania is planning to expand its textile industry. How might the country's agriculture sector support this expansion?
- You are tasked with creating a new agritourism experience in your area. What activities would you include and why?
- Suppose the Tanzania's cashew-nut export decreases suddenly. How might this affect the country's foreign exchange earnings? What solutions would you propose?
- How does agriculture contribute to the production of medicinal products?
Relationship between Agriculture and other subjects
The agriculture subject teaches about crop and animal value chains for better returns. Learning proper practices in these chains requires knowledge and skills from Agriculture and other subjects. Agriculture is closely related to other subjects (Figure 1.3) in various ways.
Figure 1.3: Subjects related to Agriculture subject
Biology | Chemistry | Physics | Computer science | Mathematics | Agriculture | Geography | Business studies | Food & Human Nutrition | 'Historia ya Tanzania & maadili' | Language subjects
(a) Biology
In Biology, we learn about living things such as livestock, crop plants, and pests. We study their characteristics and how their body systems function, such as reproduction and nutrition. This knowledge helps us to understand crop production, livestock management, as well as pest and parasite control in agriculture. Genetics, which is studied in Biology, is applied in Agriculture to develop improved crop varieties and livestock breeds.
(b) Chemistry
Using knowledge and skills from Chemistry, farmers can analyse and manage soil. By conducting soil analysis and management, farmers can determine the types and amounts of fertiliser to apply. The knowledge and skills of Chemistry are required for the manufacturing and application of agrochemicals. Chemical reactions studied in Chemistry affect the availability and uptake of plant nutrients in roots. Crop production relies on physical, chemical and biological reactions occurring in the soil. Therefore, Chemistry is important in agricultural production.
(c) Physics
In Physics, we study topics such as mechanics, heat, and light. The knowledge gained from these topics is applied to various agricultural practices. Mechanics, a branch of physics, deals with force on moving objects. In agricultural mechanization, various actions are applied during farm operations, such as cultivation, planting, weeding, and harvesting. These operations utilise mechanical energy. Advanced agricultural operations are performed using machines such as tractors, planters, and harvesters, which are designed by using principles of Physics.
(d) Computer Science
Computer Science can help farmers make their work easier and more efficient. This is done using special tools and techniques that are part of a field called 'Agricultural Technology' 'AgTech'. One example of this is a technique called 'precision farming'. In precision farming, farmers can use computers to monitor and manage their crops and animals more carefully. This can help them to grow their crops and take care of their animals more efficiently and safely.
(e) Mathematics
When studying Mathematics, various mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are learnt. In Agriculture, these operations play an important role in various aspects. For example, they are used to determine the required number of chickens in a given area, and appropriate ratios of male to female animals. Mathematics is also applied to calculate plant population in crop fields, which is essential for optimizing crop yields. Farmers need to understand and apply these mathematical operations correctly to ensure successful agricultural practices.
(f) Geography
Understanding climate and weather is important for farming. Farmers can learn about climate and weather through Geography. This knowledge helps them to plan farm activities effectively. By understanding climate and weather, farmers can make informed decisions and take appropriate actions. They can prepare fields, plant crops, and harvest at the right time, hence enhancing production. Furthermore, being aware of climate conditions can help farmers minimise risks and improve their chances of success in farming.
(g) Business Studies
Business Studies is a helpful subject for farmers. It teaches them how to calculate profits and losses, do accounting tasks, and make smart decisions. Farmers can also analyse their physical and financial records to see how well their farm is doing and make better decisions for managing it.
(h) Food and Human Nutrition
Food and Human Nutrition is a subject in which we learn how to handle and take care of food. This includes learning about proper storage and making the best use of the foods we grow in agriculture. The subject also covers how to prepare meals that are nutritious and balanced, which is important for promoting healthier and energetic families and communities.
(i) 'Historia ya Tanzania na Maadili'
'Historia ya Tanzania na Maadili' is a subject where we learn about ethics and cultural values, such as the importance of hard working and valuing one's culture. We also learn about the significance of following rules and guidelines when carrying out tasks in different fields. These aspects help farmers in smoothly running activities related to crop and animal value chains. In 'Historia ya Tanzania na Maadili', we also learn to enjoy working, work hard, and willingly follow rules and guidelines. These skills help farmers to carry out agricultural practices that protect the health of consumers and the environment.
(j) Language subjects
Language subjects such as English and Kiswahili (in certain circumstances) are very important since they are used as media for communication during the process of learning and doing agricultural activities. Language subjects facilitate communication which is one of the important 21st Century skills. By integrating the knowledge and skills we learn in different subjects, we can enhance our understanding and application of agricultural practices. For example, language helps farmers to understand the needs of their consumers. This is because language helps farmers to talk to other people about their crops and animals. In addition, language helps farmers to understand the rules and regulations of the market, which can help them to sell their products more easily. Therefore, language plays major role of what farmers do to make their work easier and more successful.
Activity 1.2
Think about the agricultural activities that take place in your school and home, then:
- Based on subjects related to Agriculture you have learnt, identify any skills or knowledge that you think are not being fully utilized or are missing in the agricultural practices.
- Use examples and personal experiences to support your answer.
- Identify some plants that are used for medicinal purposes in your area.
Exercise 1.4
- What will happen to the agricultural sector if subjects related to Agriculture are not studied properly?
- Imagine you are a farmer who wants to improve crop yields. How can you apply the knowledge and skills from Biology, Chemistry, and Mathematics to achieve this goal? Provide specific examples.
- A farmer is experiencing low crop productivity due to poor soil conditions. What can the farmer do with the knowledge and skills from Chemistry and Soil Science to improve the soil quality?
Write a summary of what you have learnt from this chapter in your portfolio.
Chapter Two: The Agricultural Soil
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about the concept of agricultural soil as well as the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil in relation to crop plant growth. You will also learn about the soil health. The competencies developed will enable you to manage the influence of soil on the growth and development of crop plants including animal feeds.
Think
"The lifeblood of agriculture, fuels plant growth and sustains ecosystem"
The Concept of Agricultural Soil
Soil can have different meanings in different fields such as engineering or farming. Soil is very important for life on earth. In agriculture, soil is the topmost part of the earth that naturally or with some modification provides nutrients to plants. It also provides support to the plants.
Components of Soil
Soil is composed of different components such as mineral matter, organic matter, water, air, and living organisms. The solid part of the soil consists of mineral matter and organic matter, making up about half (50%) of the soil. The other half of the soil is occupied by spaces called pore spaces. These are large pore spaces which are normally filled with air (about 25%) and small pore spaces filled with water (about 25%) (refer to Figure 2.1).
Mineral Matter
45%
Organic Matter
5%
Water
25%
Air
25%
Figure 2.1: Distribution of soil components by volume
Activity 2.1
- Visit different places in your school (near the pitch, under trees, near waste pits, and in the garden). Then, use a hoe to take a sample of top soil at about 30 cm depth, then:
- Make a list of all the living and non-living things you find in the soil.
- Using a magnifying glass, observe the soil closely. Look for tiny creatures, for example, worms, insects, and tiny plants.
- Put the things you found into these groups: living organisms, mineral matters, and organic matters.
- Write down what you found in your portfolio.
Mineral Matter
Mineral matter (sand, silt and clay) forms the main soil solid particles. Mineral matter also provides essential mineral nutrients that plants need to grow. These nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and others, help to make the soil fertile, which is good for growing crops. Mineral nutrients in the soil may come from the weathering of rocks over a long time or by adding fertilisers to the soil. The weathering process breaks down the rocks and releases the minerals into the soil. Understanding and managing the mineral content in soil is important for successful farming. This knowledge allows farmers to determine the suitability of the soil for various plants and decide how to enrich the soil with minerals.
Organic Matter
When plants and animals die, their remains break down and release nutrients and humus into the soil. These nutrients include carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and others. These are like food in the soil that are required by plants to grow successfully. Humus is a dark substance that easily breaks into small pieces or crumbs. It helps to improve the structure of the soil, making it easier for plant roots to grow and obtain water and nutrients. Humus also helps the soil hold moisture, which is important for plants during dry periods.
Farmers can improve the soil's organic matter by adding things such as animal manure or compost. This makes the soil fertile and healthy, which is good for growing crops. Having organic matter and humus in the soil is important for keeping the soil fertile, supporting plant growth, and allowing crop farming to be successful.
Living Organisms
The soil has living things including plants and animals. Some are big enough to be seen easily, for example, earthworms and insects. These are called macro-organisms. Others, for example, bacteria and certain fungi, are very small and can only be seen using a microscope. They are called micro-organisms. Soil organisms eat the remains of plants and animals. When they eat, they break them down to release nutrients and humus. Soil organisms can be divided into beneficial and harmful organisms. Beneficial soil organisms are important for keeping the soil healthy and helping plants grow well. To maintain beneficial organisms in the soil, farmers need to employ Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs), for example, applying compost or animal manure, using mulch or cover crops, and rotating crops. On the other hand, harmful soil organisms affect the growth of plants.
Soil Water
Water in the soil is found in small spaces. It can come from rain or when farmers irrigate their crops. This water has mineral nutrients dissolved in it. When water and minerals mix, it is called soil solution. Soil water is important because it helps to dissolve mineral nutrients in the soil and it carries them to plant roots. It also provides water for living things in the soil. Farmers can maintain the required soil water through irrigation and drainage. They can also use methods to prevent or reduce water loss from the soil, for example, by adding organic manures, using dry grass mulch and practising conservation agriculture by planting shed trees on the farm.
Note: For most crops, conditions are best when the soil pore spaces are filled about equally with water and air.
Activity 2.2
Experiment: Exploring the role of soil water in plant growth
Materials needed: Two identical pots, the same type of soil for both pots, a seedling or a small plant for each pot, two containers for holding water, a notebook for recording observations, and a ruler or measuring tape
Procedure
Soil Air
Air in the soil is like the air we breathe. It fills the spaces between the soil particles, called pore spaces. This air moves between the soil and the atmosphere. Soil air is important for the growth of plants. Plants need oxygen from the soil air for their roots to breathe or respire and grow. Soil organisms also need air to survive. They breathe in the soil air to stay alive. Farmers need to make sure that soil air stays healthy. Here are some things they can do:
- Avoid compacting the soil too much. When the soil gets squeezed, the pore spaces get smaller and there is less room for air.
- Don't overwater the soil, as water can fill up all the pore spaces and push out the air.
- Take care when using chemicals or fertilisers, as some can harm the soil organisms and affect the air quality. Consult your agricultural extension worker in your area for advice.
Activity 2.3
Experiment: Investigating the role of soil air in plant growth
Materials needed: Two identical pots, the same type of soil for both pots, a seedling or a small plant for each pot, a cover or lid for one of the pots, a notebook for recording observations and a ruler or measuring tape
Procedures
Exercise 2.1
- Given that you have a vegetable garden with soil that stays very wet for a long time. Explain how this can harm your plants and suggest two ways to improve the soil's water movement.
- Give at least two ways farmers can use to improve the nutrient content of soil in their vegetable garden.
- Suppose you are a farmer with a small garden and one day you notice that your plants are not growing well and the soil seems compacted. What are actions would you take to improve that soil and why those actions?
Soil Profile
When you dig a vertical section through the soil, you can see different layers. This vertical section is called a soil profile. The layers in the soil profile are known as soil horizons. They are called horizons because they spread horizontally from side to side. There are four major horizons in a soil profile found in undisturbed soils. These are horizons O, A, B and C (refer to Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: Typical soil profile
Horizons: O | A | B | C | R
O Horizon
The topmost layer, also known as the organic horizon. It is rich in decomposed organic matter like leaves and plant debris. It has a dark colour and is rich in nutrients.
A Horizon
It is also referred to as the topsoil. It is a horizon where most plant roots grow. It is generally darker in colour because it has more organic matter than the horizons below. Horizon A is an important horizon for nutrient availability to plants as it contains organic matter, minerals, and micro-organisms. However, horizon A is characterised by eluviation. Eluviation is the process of leaching or washing out soluble minerals and organic matter from the upper horizons of the soil and depositing them in lower horizons.
B Horizon
It is also known as subsoil. The B horizon accumulates minerals and nutrients leached from the upper layers hence called the iluvial horizon. Horizon B is denser and less fertile than the A horizon.
C Horizon
The C horizon is the parent material horizon. It consists of weathered rock fragments and it lacks the organic matter and nutrients found in the upper horizons.
R Horizon
This is not considered as horizon; it rather denotes a bedrock. It is a layer of hard bedrock found at the bottom of all soil profiles. It is the solid rock from which the soil is formed. It constitutes materials that haven't changed since were formed.
In fields, the typical soil profile has horizons A, B, and C. In forests, there is an additional O horizon on top of horizons A and B. Not all horizons are present in every soil profile, especially when the soil is disturbed. The presence and characteristics of each horizon vary based on location and soil formation processes.
Exercise 2.2
- Why is the B horizon considered less fertile compared to the A horizon?
- As a farmer, you observe a wide variety of plants and animals living in the soil. How do you think these living organisms contribute to the suitability of the soil for farming? Provide two specific examples.
- Observe the soil profiles presented in Figures 2.3 (a) to (c) then comment on the differences and suitability of each profile for crop farming.
Physical Properties of Soil
The physical properties of soil are the features or characteristics of soil that can be seen or observed and measured without changing the soil's composition. These properties include things such as the feel of the soil (soil texture), how the soil particles are packed or arranged (soil structure), and how much space is between and within the soil particles (soil porosity). The physical properties of soil are important because they affect how water and air move through the soil and how plants grow. Generally, the physical properties of soil determine how well the soil can provide the necessary conditions for plants and other organisms to grow successfully.
Soil Texture
Soil consists of solid mineral particles which are sand, silt and clay. Sand particles are the largest, ranging from 0.05 mm to 2 mm in diameter. Silt particles are smaller than sand but larger than clay, measuring between 0.002 mm and 0.05 mm in diameter. Clay particles are the smallest, measuring less than 0.002 mm in diameter. Solid particles of soil which are greater than 2 mm in diameter are considered as stones and gravels. The relative proportion of sand, silt and clay particles in the soil is referred to as soil texture. Soil texture also refers to the feeling of coarseness or fineness of soil determined by the relative proportions of sand, silt and clay particles. The three main types of soil texture are sand, silt, and clay. Soils which are a balanced mixture of all these three particle sizes together with organic matter are known as loamy soil.
When we want to grow crops, we need to pay attention to the type of soil we have. We can group this into four main types: clayey, silty, sandy and loamy. The size of the particles in the soil is what makes these differences. Clay is very small, silt is medium, and sand is large. While some types of soil are good for growing crops on their own, adding things such as manure or fertilisers can make the soil even better for growing. The soil can change over time, so it is important to regularly check and take care of it. Table 2.1 shows the characteristics of soil types.
| Parameter | Sandy | Silty | Clayey | Loamy |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Particle size | Largest particles among all soil types | Slightly smaller than sand and larger than clay | Extremely smaller and fine | Balance of sand, silt and clay |
| Feel | Gritty | Smooth and soft | Smooth, soft | Smooth or silky, also greasy if it has plenty of organic matter |
| Drying out | Fast, without cracking | Not too fast, together with cracking | Slow, always with cracking | Moderate, rarely with cracking |
| Tilling | Easily | Needs regular tilling to prevent compaction | Hard due to stickiness; requires regular tilling and addition of organic matter | Easily |
| Drainage | Drains well | Drains slowly | Drains very slowly | Drains moderately |
| Water retention | Poor | Good | Excellent | Good |
| Nutrient retention | Poor | Good | Excellent | Good |
| Cropping suitability | Best for drought-tolerant crops | Best for crops that can tolerate a bit of wetness | Best for crops that can tolerate wetness | Suitable for a wide range of crops |
Source: EOS Data Analytics. (2022). https://eos.com/blog/types-of-soil/
Determination of Soil Texture
Soil texture can be determined using laboratory analysis or simple methods which can be easily carried out in the field such as texture by feeling method. Normally, laboratory analyses of soil texture are costly and take time, while feeling soil texture by hand is cheap, quick, and accurate. Soils are divided into three broad texture groups: coarse-textured soils, medium-textured soils, and fine-textured soils. The term coarse-textured is often used for soils that are dominated by sand. Fine-textured soils refer to soils that are dominated by clay, and medium-textured soils are a more balanced mixture of sand, silt, and clay particles. The medium-textured soils are also termed as loam soils.
Determination of Soil Texture by Feel Method
This method is used to determine the textural class of soil in the field by simple field tests and feeling the constituents of the soil. The soil sample must be in a state between moist to slightly wet. Gravel and other constituents greater than 2 mm in diameter must be removed.
Procedure for Determining Soil Texture by Feel Method
Figure 2.4: Forming soil ball
Figure 2.5: Forming ribbon from the soil ball
When starting with dry clays, make sure you allow time for the clays to become moist, and make sure 'gritty' particles are not aggregated.
The principle behind forming ribbons is related to the cohesion that exists among clay particles. Clays are sticky when moist, and so the ribbon length is proportional to the clay content. If the ribbon length is:
- less than 2.5 cm, the general category of soil texture is loam.
- between 2.5 cm and 5 cm, the general category of soil texture is clay loam.
- greater than 5 cm, the general category of soil texture is clay.
After determining the general category by clay content, move to step 4.
Figure 2.6: Feeling the texture of the soil in the palm
If grittiness:
- dominates, then the modifier, 'sandy', will be added to the general category determined in step 3, for example, sandy loam, sandy clay loam, or sandy clay.
- does not dominate, but smoothness does, then a modifier of silt will be added, for example, silt loam, silty clay loam, or silty clay. Silt is not sticky, but is smooth like flour, foundation make-up, or talcum powder.
Activity 2.4
- Determine the texture of the soil of your school and home garden by the feel method.
- Classify the soil types accordingly.
Soil Structure
Soil is made up of sand, silt or clay particles that come together to form a group of particles known as soil aggregates (refer to Figure 2.7). Soil aggregates can be sandy, silty, clayey or loamy. A soil aggregate is like a basket of different types of soil particles. Soil structure is about how soil particles are arranged in an aggregate. An arrangement of soil particles in an aggregate can influence how the spaces between and within soil aggregates.
Figure 2.7: Soil aggregates
A well-structured soil has a network of tiny spaces. These spaces are between and within the soil aggregates. This network allows water and air to move around. Soil structure helps water and air to move easily, just like air moving through doors and windows in a house. In farming, soil structure is important because it helps plants to grow strong and healthy. It also stops the soil from being washed away when it rains or wind blows.
Poor farming practices can damage the soil structure. For example, if big and too much heavy machines are used, they can squash the soil. If we give the soil too much water or too many chemical fertilisers, it can also damage the soil structure. But we can keep the soil structure safe in many ways. One way is by changing the type of crop we grow each season. This is called crop rotation. Crop rotation involves growing a different type of crop on the same piece of land in each year or growing season, using a set pattern (refer to Figure 2.8). Another way is by using organic fertilisers instead of inorganic fertilisers. These are some recommended cultural practices which help to improve soil structure making it suitable for crop production.
Figure 2.8: Example of crop rotation in vegetable production
Year 1: Tomato | Legume | Carrot
Year 2: Carrot | Tomato | Legume
Year 3: Legume | Carrot | Tomato
Soil Pore Spaces
Soil pore spaces, also known as soil porosity, are open spaces between and within soil aggregates. These spaces are usually filled with water and air. Everything in the soil that is not a solid is in these pore spaces. Based on size, there are two types of pores namely, macro pores and micro pores (Figure 2.9 (a) and (b)).
Figure 2.9 (a): Pore spaces in loosely structured sand particles
Figure 2.9 (b): Pore spaces in aggregated clay particles
When the soil is porous, it can hold more water and nutrients. This is important for plant growth as it allows plants to absorb water and nutrients from the soil. Without sufficient porosity, water and nutrients cannot penetrate the soil, leading to poor plant growth and health. Moreover, soil porosity also plays a role in the airflow in the soil. This is important because it allows the movement of gases, which are essential for the life of plants and soil organisms. If soil is compacted or has low porosity, it can impede this airflow, leading to poor plant growth and health. The following soil properties can influence the amount of pore spaces in the soil. These include soil texture, soil structure, organic matter and soil compaction.
- Soil texture: Different types of soil have different amounts of pore spaces. For example, sandy soil, which has big particles, has more pore spaces than clay soil, which has small particles.
- Soil structure: The way soil particles stick together can change the amount of pore spaces. The soil that is packed loosely has more pore spaces than the soil that is packed tightly.
- Organic matter: The soil that has a lot of organic matter, for example, leaves, has more pore spaces. This is due to the formation of well-aggregated structures.
- Soil compaction: When the soil is highly pressed down, for example, when people walk on it or when machines are used on it while is wet, it can have fewer pore spaces.
Exercise 2.3
- If you were to design a perfect garden for growing vegetables, what texture of the soil would you prefer? Give reasons.
- How might the porosity of soil in your garden affect the amount of water it can hold?
- You notice that water drains very quickly through the soil in a pot plant. What does this tell you about the soil texture?
- How would you explain the importance of soil texture, structure and porosity to a beginner gardener?
Chemical Properties of Soil
Soil plays an important role in supporting plant growth by providing essential nutrients. The chemical properties of soil, including the presence and availability of various elements, and soil reaction influence its fertility and nutrient content. Understanding the chemical properties of soil is like understanding the nutrition facts on a food label. It helps us know what is good for the plants and what is not. On the one hand, Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are the primary macro nutrients required in large quantities by plants and they are commonly provided as inorganic fertilisers. Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), and sulphur (S) are secondary macro nutrients. On the other hand, micronutrients are required in small quantities. These include iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), boron (B), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo) and chlorine (Cl). Table 2.2 presents the basic functions and deficiency symptoms of the mineral nutrients to crop plants.
| Nutrient | Basic Functions | Deficiency Symptoms |
|---|---|---|
| Nitrogen | It is responsible for leaf and stem growth and it gives plants their green colour (chlorophyll) | Plants may look yellow and grow slowly |
| Phosphorus | Helps in root development flowering and seed formation | Dark green or purple leaves and underdeveloped roots, poor flowering and seed formation |
| Potassium | Helps in disease resistance and water usage | Yellow leaves at the edges and increased disease susceptibility |
| Calcium | Helps in the growth of roots, leaves and cell wall formation | Dead spots or curled leaves |
| Magnesium | Important for photosynthesis as it is involved in chlorophyll production | Yellow colour between the leaf veins |
| Sulphur | Helps in protein production | Pale or small plants |
| Iron | Helps in chlorophyll formation for photosynthesis | Yellow leaves with green veins |
| Manganese | Helps plants to use nitrogen | Yellow leaves |
| Zinc | Helps with protein production | Yellow colour between the leaf veins, reduced distance between leaves on stems (short internodes) |
| Boron | Helps in plant growth and development | Death of the terminal growing points and stunted growth, malformed or discoloured fruits or vegetables |
| Copper | Important for seed production | Darkened and curled leaves |
| Molybdenum | Helps plants to use nitrogen | Pale leaves with fringes at the edges |
| Chlorine | Helps in photosynthesis | Wilting of leaves, yellowish-brown leaves, and underdeveloped roots |
Soil Reaction
Soil reaction, also known as soil pH, is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil. Soil pH ranges from approximately 0 to 14. Soils with pH values less than 7 are said to be acidic soils, those with pH values about 7 are said to be neutral soils and those with pH values above 7 are said to be alkaline soils. Soil pH is normally presented in a pH scale as shown in Figure 2.10. It affects the availability of nutrients to plants and how these nutrients react with each other. The suitable pH range for most plants is between 5.5 and 7.0.
Figure 2.10: pH scale
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
increasing acidity ← | → increasing alkalinity
The Acidic Soils
In acidic soils, availability of nutrients is affected. For example, aluminium and manganese can become more available and more toxic to plants, while calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium are less available. When this happens, some symptoms can be observed in plants. These symptoms include stunted growth, yellowing of leaves, and poor fruit development. To manage acidic soil, materials called lime can be applied to soil to increase soil pH and make it more alkaline.
The Alkaline Soils
In alkaline soils, the availability of nutrients is also affected. For example, phosphorus and most micronutrients become less available. When this happens, some symptoms can be observed in plants. These symptoms include stunted growth, yellowing leaves, and poor fruit development. To manage alkaline soil, acidifying materials can be added to decrease soil pH.
Note: The availability of nutrients in the soil is not only influenced by factors such as acidity or alkalinity. It can also be affected by the amount of organic matter in the soil and soil texture. You need to check plants regularly. Look for signs such as slow growth or yellow leaves. This could mean the plants need more nutrients. If possible, you should consult soil scientists for soil testing. Soil testing results will provide information about the soil's nutrient content and pH, and suggest necessary management actions if the conditions are not suitable for plant growth.
Exercise 2.4
- A farmer notices that the leaves of tomato plants are turning yellow. What could be the possible cause, and how can the farmer manage this situation?
- A farmer notices that onion plants are growing poorly, with stunted growth and yellowing leaves. He suspects a nutrient deficiency but he is not sure which nutrient is lacking. What steps can the farmer take to determine the nutrient deficiency, and how can he manage this challenge?
- A farmer has been using the same fertiliser for several years and notices that her crops are not growing as they used to be in previous years. What could be the possible cause, and how can the farmer manage this challenge?
Biological Properties of Soil
Soil is full of both macro-organisms and micro-organisms. Macro-organisms are those that can be seen with the naked eye, for example, earthworms, beetles, and other insects. Micro-organisms are very small creatures that we cannot see without a microscope. These include bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Macro-organisms, for example, earthworms, help to break down dead plants and animals in the soil. As they move through the soil, they also create channels that allow air and water to circulate, which is important for plant roots to grow. Micro-organisms play an even bigger role in soil health and crop production. For example, some bacteria can take nitrogen from the air and convert it into a form that plants can use for growth. This process is called nitrogen fixation. Fungi are another type of micro-organism. Some fungi form a beneficial relationship with plant roots, helping the plant to absorb water and nutrients. In return, the plant provides the fungi with sugars. Therefore, both macro-organisms and micro-organisms are very important for soil health and growing crops. They help to break down organic matter, improve soil structure, and provide plants with the nutrients they need to grow. To improve the biological properties of soil, farmers can apply practices that keep soil a safe habitat for soil organisms, such as reducing tillage and using organic matter.
Harmful Soil Microorganisms
Soil is a home for micro-organisms, also called microbes. Some of these microbes help plants to grow, but others can harm them, for example, nematodes. These harmful microbes can enter plants through their roots and stems, causing damage and stopping the flow of water and nutrients. Some of these harmful microbes can also enter plants through their leaves and cause diseases.
Before we plant a crop, it is important to check for these harmful microbes in the soil. If we don't, they can harm our crops. It is also important to understand that managing these harmful microbes can be tricky. It takes time and effort, and we might not always see the results right away. But, if we manage them well, we can ensure that our crops stay healthy.
Exercise 2.5
A gardener is composting organic wastes to create nutrient-rich soil. Explain how fungi can help in the decomposition process of that garden's organic wastes.
Soil Health
Soil is used for growing crops. Soil is like a plant's home. Plants need certain things from soil to grow well. These things include sufficient nutrients, favourable soil pH and the presence of good micro-organisms. However, not all soil is suitable for growing crops. Some soil lacks essential nutrients. Some soil has harmful bacteria, fungi, and nematodes. Some have excessive acidity or alkalinity. Some soil has bad things in it because of pollution. These things can make the soil unhealthy.
Looking after soil health is very important in farming. Healthy soil supports and sustains life. It is like our human body that needs nutrients, water, and a healthy environment to stay well. Soils need these things to grow plants and support other organisms. A healthy soil has organisms like bacteria and worms, and non-living particles such as minerals and organic matter. These things work together to keep the soil healthy. A healthy soil helps plants to grow well. It gives plants the right nutrients, supports their roots, and helps them get water and air when they need them.
Just like we need to take care of our health, farmers need to take care of the health of their soil. As said earlier, they can do this in different ways. For example, by adding organic matter, which feeds the micro-organisms in the soil. They can also use techniques such as crop rotation. This practice helps to maintain soil health by ensuring that different crops use different nutrients in the soil. It also helps to control pests and diseases, and also makes the soil better at holding water, which is important for keeping plants healthy.
Exercise 2.6
- How can you add organic matter content to the soil and why is it beneficial?
- How can you implement crop rotation in your farm and why is it important?
- You have learnt about the importance of healthy soil for farming. How can you ensure that the soil is healthy and it supports the growth of crops?
- How can you ensure the presence of beneficial soil organisms and maintain healthy soil in your garden? Provide at least two practices you would implement and explain why they are important.
- Baraka is studying the relationship between soil health and nutrient availability. How could you assist Baraka in explaining how soil health can influence nutrient availability for plants?
Write a summary of what you have learnt from this chapter in your portfolio.
Chapter Three: Introduction to Horticultural Production
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about the meaning of horticultural production, types of horticultural crops and their importance. You will further learn about the structures for growing horticultural crops and types of horticultural farming. The competencies developed will enable you to explore and venture into a wide range of entrepreneurial opportunities existing in the horticultural sector.
Think
"Nourishes our health, beautifies our gardens and promotes biodiversity"
The Meaning and Importance of Horticultural Production
Horticulture is part of agriculture, combining art and science in cultivating and managing vegetables (olericulture), fruits (pomology), ornamentals (floriculture), and spices crops. It also involves postharvest practices such as handling, processing, and packaging of the crops to extend their shelf life and increase their availability and profitability. Landscaping, which beautifies areas with different garden designs and materials, is also a part of horticulture. Most horticultural products, such as fruits, vegetables, and some spices, are sold or eaten fresh.
Importance of Horticultural Production
(a) Provide Nutritious Food
Vegetables, fruits and spices are the main source of vitamin and mineral nutrients which enable our bodies to maintain good health. In addition, spices improve the flavour of foods and have some medicinal functions for our health.
(b) Provide Income
When farmers produce horticultural crops commercially, they can earn money to take care of their day-to-day needs. It also enables farmers to save money for emergencies and for further investments to make more money. They can also be sold to foreign countries and thus serve as a source of foreign income.
(c) Provide Employment
Production of horticultural crops involves intensive operations carried out from the initial point of production to final consumption (value chains). This creates employment for the people involved in carrying out those operations.
(d) Stimulate Industrial Growth
Most horticultural crops provide raw materials for processing and value addition in industries including beverage industries.
(e) Provide Business Opportunities
There are many chances to start a business in the horticultural-related industry. You can do this by working directly with businesses that are part of the crop production process. This is possible as long as there are people who want to buy the produce and their by-products. Alternatively, you can start a business that helps the main horticultural-related businesses to work better. You can identify a business opportunity in horticultural crops by finding out the problems that people have in the crop value chain and coming up with solutions that can make one earn money.
(f) Conserve Soil
Apart from beautifying environment, crops such as ornamental shrubs and grasses in the landscape provide adequate soil cover. This protects the soil from wind and water erosions.
Types of Horticultural Crops
The following sections of this chapter present the major types of horticultural crops namely vegetable, fruit, spice, and ornamental crops.
Vegetable Crops
These are crops for which the whole plant, leaves, stems, fruits, roots, seed or pods are used as food, normally mixed with other foods. Some of these crops are shown in Figures 3.1 to 3.23.
Okra
Figure 3.1
Green Amaranth
Figure 3.2
Red & Black Tomato
Figure 3.3
Black Nightshade
Figure 3.4
Beetroot
Figure 3.5
Radish
Figure 3.6
Bulb Onion
Figure 3.7
Leek
Figure 3.8
Eggplant
Figure 3.9 (a)
African Eggplant
Figure 3.9 (b)
Green Sweet Pepper
Figure 3.10
Carrot
Figure 3.11
White Cauliflower
Figure 3.12
Green Cabbage
Figure 3.13
Broccoli
Figure 3.14
Kale
Figure 3.15
Zucchini
Figure 3.16
Cucumber
Figure 3.17
Butternut Squash
Figure 3.18 (a)
Pumpkin
Figure 3.18 (b)
Spinach
Figure 3.19
Chinese Cabbage
Figure 3.20
Green Bean
Figure 3.21
Common Pea
Figure 3.22
Activity 3.1
- Categories these vegetables based on the parts we eat such as leaves, roots, flowers, pods, seeds, fruits, bulbs, and stems.
- Use a library and ICT tools to find out how the vegetables in Figures 3.1 to 3.22 are used and what business can be done with them. Also, look for information about other common vegetables in your area.
- Write a summary of what you have learnt from this activity in your portfolio.
Fruit Crops
These are crops mostly with a bush-type or tree growing habit. They usually contain an edible part that holds seeds with some being seedless species. Some of these fruit crops are shown in Figures 3.23 to 3.47.
Orange
Figure 3.23 (a)
Tangerine
Figure 3.23 (b)
Mango
Figure 3.24
Jew Plum
Figure 3.25
Guava
Figure 3.26
Jambolan
Figure 3.27
Green & Black Grapes
Figure 3.28
Loquat
Figure 3.29
Papaya
Figure 3.30
Tree Tomato/Tamarillo
Figure 3.31
Gooseberry
Figure 3.32
Passion Fruit
Figure 3.33
Lemon
Figure 3.34 (a)
Lime
Figure 3.34 (b)
Avocado
Figure 3.35
Jackfruit
Figure 3.36
Apple
Figure 3.37
Peach
Figure 3.38
Plum
Figure 3.40
Sugar-apple/Sweet-sop
Figure 3.41 (a)
Soursop
Figure 3.41 (b)
Watermelon
Figure 3.42
Pineapple
Figure 3.43
Strawberry
Figure 3.44
Pomegranate
Figure 3.45
Banana
Figure 3.46
Tamarind
Figure 3.47
Activity 3.2
- Examine about two fruit crops that are common in your area. Compare these fruit crops to the same fruit crops grown in other parts of Tanzania. Think about what these fruit crops are used for. Record your responses in your portfolio.
- Consider the fruit crops you have learnt about and think about what businesses you could start using these fruit crops to earn money. Record your responses in your portfolio. Also, look for information about other common fruits in your area.
- Outline the lessons learnt from this activity and record them in your portfolio.
Spice Crops
These are crops in which parts or substances extracted from their parts are used to give a special flavour to foods or drinks. Some spice crops are shown in Figures 3.48 to 3.65.
Ginger
Figure 3.48
Turmeric
Figure 3.49
Garlic
Figure 3.50
Clove
Figure 3.51
Cardamom
Figure 3.52
Cinnamon
Figure 3.53
Nutmeg
Figure 3.54
Black Pepper
Figure 3.55
Vanilla
Figure 3.56
Chilli
Figure 3.57
Lemon Grass
Figure 3.58
Mint
Figure 3.59
Coriander
Figure 3.60
Celery
Figure 3.61
Verbena
Figure 3.62
Rosemary
Figure 3.63
Dill
Figure 3.64
Fennel
Figure 3.65
Activity 3.3
- Use your experience from the environment, a library, and ICT facilities to find out how the spice crops in Figures 3.48 to 3.65 are used and what business can be done with them. Also, look for information about other common vegetables in your area.
- Write a summary of what you have learnt from this activity in your portfolio.
Ornamental Crops
These are crops that are grown for decorative purposes in garden landscapes and various occasions. Ornamental crops beautify the environment with their peculiar features such as flowers, leaves, stems or pleasant natural smell. Ornamental crops are sometimes used as houseplants, cut flowers and specimen displays. Some ornamental crops are shown in Figures 3.66 to 3.70.
Pink Rose
Figure 3.66
Dark Pink Carnation
Figure 3.67
Multi-coloured Chrysanthemum
Figure 3.68
Multi-coloured Aster
Figure 3.69
Activity 3.4
- Identify ornamental crops or plants that are common in your area. Compare these crops or plants to other ornamental crops or plants grown in other parts of Tanzania.
- Outline how the identified ornamental crops or plants are used in your area.
- Outline the types of businesses that you can establish using these crops or plants to earn money.
- Record the responses in your portfolio.
Structures for Growing Horticultural Crops
Unlike other crops, many horticultural crops can be grown in varied seedbeds, structures, and growing media including greenhouse and screen houses (refer to Figures 3.71 and 3.72) or normal seedbeds (refer to Figures 3.73 (a) and (b)). In urban or peri-urban areas where land is a constraint, horticultural crops can be grown in improvised seedbeds. Improvised seedbeds involve the use of locally available materials in raising crops, for example, used containers, tyres, sacks and polythene bags packed with soil or other required growing media (refer to Figure 3.74 (a) - (d)). In addition, ready-made pots can be used in raising horticultural crops (refer to Figures 3.74 (e)). However, the use of ready-made bags and pots is relatively expensive compared to the use of locally available materials. Vertical or multi-storey gardening can also be used in areas with a shortage of land (refer to Figures 3.75 (a) and (b)).
Greenhouse with Hydroponic System
Figure 3.71
Screen House with Soil
Figure 3.72
Conventional Seedbeds with Grass Mulch
Figure 3.73 (a)
Conventional Seedbeds with Plastic Mulch
Figure 3.73 (b)
Gardening in Used Tyre
Figure 3.74 (a)
Gardening in Used Bottles
Figure 3.74 (b)
Gardening in Used Sack
Figure 3.74 (c)
Gardening in Used Bags
Figure 3.74 (d)
Gardening in Ready-made Pots
Figure 3.74 (e)
Multi-storey Garden
Figure 3.75 (a)
Vertical Garden Section
Figure 3.75 (b)
Exercise 3.1
Which seedbeds in Figures 3.71 to 3.75 are best for growing vegetable crops at your school and home? Why?
Types of Horticultural Farming
Horticultural farming can be grouped in various ways. It can be grouped according to where it is practised. On this basis, there is home gardening (taking place at home) and field horticulture (taking place in fields which may be near or far away from home). Horticultural farming can also be grouped according to purpose. In this regard, there are subsistence and commercial horticultural farming.
Subsistence Horticultural Farming
Subsistence horticultural farming involves producing horticultural crops at a minimum level for own use. For example, horticultural crops (particularly vegetables and some fruits) can be planted in mixtures with staple food crops such as maize, sorghum, yams and upland paddy. Home gardening to produce vegetables, fruits, spices or ornamental plants for own use is another example of subsistence horticultural farming. Where land is sufficient, conventional seedbeds are used for home gardening while improvised seedbeds are commonly used where there is a shortage of land.
Commercial Horticulture
Commercial horticulture involves the production of vegetables, fruits, spices and/or ornamentals in small, medium or large quantities for business purposes. In commercial horticulture, conventional seedbeds or screen houses are used depending on various factors including the amount of capital a farmer is able and willing to invest.
Exercise 3.2
- 'Vegetable farming does not apply to people who are limited to land and water resources.' Discuss.
- What are the major things you need to consider in finding entrepreneurial opportunities in agricultural production, for example, in horticultural production?
- What challenges might be hindering commercial horticulture in your area? How would you overcome each of the challenges using the available opportunities?
Write a summary of what you have learnt from this chapter in your portfolio.
Chapter Four
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn basic principles and practices of vegetable production including planning for vegetable production, land preparation, sowing or planting, management of water, nutrients and pests as well as harvest and postharvest practices. The competencies developed will enable you to combine scientific knowledge, agricultural techniques and sustainable approaches to produce vegetables. This will help you make money and have food to eat at home.
Think
"Lays the foundation for successful horticultural farming"
Planning for Vegetable Crop Production
When growing vegetables, it is important to remember some few things. Most vegetables are usually perishable, and bulky, and some only grow in certain seasons. They also need resources to grow and can be affected by pests and diseases. It is sometimes not easy to know how much to produce because the market can change. Therefore, to make a plan for growing vegetables, we need to think about:
Goals and Objectives
What is to be achieved in vegetable production? Is it for income, food security, or both?
Resource Assessment
What resources are needed for vegetable production and what's available?
Crop Selection
Which types of vegetables can be produced with the available resources?
Our Goals for Vegetable Production
Setting goals for vegetable production is a vital step for successful production. Is it to earn money, for food or for other reasons? Think also about how much time and money you can invest in vegetable production. Ensure that your goals are clear, specific, and achievable.
Availability of Resources for Vegetable Production
Starting a vegetable business depends on several resources. Those resources can vary based on your location and the specific vegetables you want to grow. It is important to carefully consider each resource before starting your vegetable business.
| Resource | Considerations |
|---|---|
| Land | Location, size, soil type, and suitability for intended vegetables |
| Climate | Suitability of horticultural crops to local climate conditions |
| Water | Source, availability, cost, and quality for irrigation |
| Structures | Buildings, fences, greenhouses and their maintenance costs |
| Tools/Equipment | Availability, need for rental, and cost estimation |
| Capital | Startup funds and sources for business establishment |
| Management Skills | Record keeping, people management, and budgeting abilities |
| Labor | Family or hired labor requirements and availability |
| Market & Marketing | Customer location, distribution channels, and pricing strategy |
Matching Vegetable Enterprises with Available Resources
Plan your vegetable enterprises with available resources. These resources include water, land, money and equipment you have. Compare your resources with the needs of each crop. If a crop needs a lot of sun and you have a lot of it, that is good. If a crop needs rich soil and you have poor soil, you may need to apply fertilisers. If you are not sure, ask a local farmer or an expert. They can give you good advice based on their expertise and experience.
Growing Considerations
The following can also be put into consideration when planning for vegetable crop production:
Crop Rotation
Understanding how different crops affect each other when grown in rotation
Pests and Diseases
Learning about common pests and diseases and their management strategies
Harvesting
Knowing when and how to harvest crops for optimal quality and yield
Risk Management
Identifying potential risks and developing mitigation strategies
Compatibility Among Farm Enterprises
When you want to grow more than one type of crop, you have to think about how they fit together. For instance, you might have enough people to help with one crop. But, if you choose another crop that also needs a lot of labour, you might not have enough to help. It is important to do all activities timely and appropriately.
Possible Vegetable Enterprises
There are different ways to get involved in the vegetable industry. The following are some ideas:
| Enterprise Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Traditional Vegetables | Growing indigenous vegetables like nightshade, pumpkin leaves, amaranth |
| Organic Production | Growing vegetables using non-synthetic fertilizers and pesticides |
| Conventional Production | Growing vegetables using synthetic inputs like fertilizers and pesticides |
| Retail Marketing | Selling vegetables in small portions directly to consumers |
| Wholesale Marketing | Selling vegetables in large quantities to retailers |
| Leafy Vegetable Production | Growing vegetables where edible parts are leaves (amaranth, cabbage) |
| Fruit Vegetable Production | Growing vegetables categorized as fruits (tomato, pepper, eggplant) |
| Root Vegetable Production | Growing vegetables categorized as roots (carrot, beetroot, onion) |
| Assorted Vegetable Production | Growing a combination of several vegetables |
Note: Once you have decided on your crops, look at your goals again. Check that your plan meets your long and short-term goals. It is also important to note that planning can be hard, but it is important. Spending more time in planning, put you in good position to do your vegetable farming better.
Activity 4.1
Look around your school, home, and nearby areas then do the following tasks:
- Notice and name any vegetable farming activities happening in these places.
- Identify the resources that help the vegetable farming in your area.
- Identify problems that affect the vegetable farming and think of ways to solve them.
- Write a summary of your observations in your portfolio.
Exercise 4.1
- Why is it important to set your personal goals before planning for a vegetable farming business?
- What does 'beginning with the end in mind' mean when planning for vegetable production?
- (a) Why is it better to produce what you can sell instead of trying to sell what you have produced? (b) How can you make sure you are producing what people want to purchase?
Site Selection and Land Preparation for Vegetable Farming
Site selection involves choosing a location that is suitable for growing the type of vegetables you want to cultivate. Factors to consider include all factors you have already considered in the planning section. Some of the important factors include soil type, climate and availability of water and market. The next step is to prepare the land for planting. This involves several steps such as clearing the land and preparing the soil by turning it over to break it up and make it easier for the roots of the vegetables to grow. It also involves adding organic manure such as compost or farm yard manure to the soil.
Types of Seedbeds Commonly Used for Vegetable Farming
Depending on the production season, type of irrigation and the field condition, three types of seedbeds are commonly used in vegetable production. These are raised seedbed, sunken seedbed, and flat seedbed.
Raised Beds
Great for clayey soils or areas with poor drainage. Usually 100 cm wide and 10-30 cm high. Better drainage and easier access for hand operations.
Sunken Beds
About 100 cm wide, made by removing soil 10-20 cm below surrounding level. Great for water conservation, often used in dry regions.
Flatbeds
Prepared by leveling the area to be planted. Used where water availability is adequate with no drainage problems.
Chapter Summary
This chapter covered the fundamental principles and practices of vegetable production, from initial planning through to harvest and postharvest management. Key topics included resource assessment, site selection, seedbed preparation, planting methods, and integrated management of soil, water, nutrients, and pests.
Write a summary of what you have learnt from this chapter in your portfolio.
Production of Amaranth
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn how to grow amaranth, from the start to selling it. The competencies developed will enable you to earn money and have amaranth for your meals.
Think
"Starts small, grows steady and thrives with each step you take."
Getting Started with Amaranth Production
Amaranth is a fast-growing vegetable crop that can be grown all year round in Tanzania. It can be grown for its leaves or seeds. It is an easy crop to grow with very quick returns, and has few simple requirements. Amaranth is rich in vitamins A, B, C, and minerals such as calcium and iron. Some amaranth grains are also high in protein. You can eat amaranth alone or mix it with other vegetables. Amaranth can grow in many different soil and weather conditions. It is also a good way for farmers to earn money by selling its leaves or grains.
Leafy Amaranth
Grown primarily for its nutritious leaves, rich in vitamins and minerals. Perfect for daily vegetable consumption.
Grain Amaranth
Cultivated for its protein-rich seeds. Excellent for flour production and as a nutritious grain alternative.
Planning for Amaranth Production
In planning for amaranth production, consider which variety to grow; for market or home consumption. Other considerations include when to produce the crop, reliable seed sources and arrangement of marketing strategies as the crop takes a short time to be ready for harvesting.
Activity 5.1
- Use the internet or a library to find out about different types of amaranths that are commonly grown in Tanzania. Look for information about how amaranth is grown, cared for, harvested, processed, and marketed.
- Go to your school garden or a nearby amaranth farm. Learn from the gardener on how amaranth is grown, taken care of, harvested, processed, and sold.
- Write down the lessons you have learnt from the tasks 1 and 2 above.
Growing Amaranth
Growing amaranth needs several steps. First, you need to choose where to plant the amaranth. Next, you need to prepare the place where you will plant the amaranth. Once the place is ready, you can plant the amaranth seeds or seedlings. After planting, you need to consider water management to the crop plants and keep the amaranth safe from pests and diseases.
Site Selection
Choose well-drained loamy, sandy loamy, or silty loamy soil rich in organic matter
Land Preparation
Clear, plough to 25cm depth, harrow and level the soil for fine tilth
Soil Enrichment
Apply 25 tons/hectare of well-decomposed farmyard manure
Planting
Direct seeding by broadcasting or drilling methods with proper spacing
Choosing a Site for Amaranth
Amaranth grows well on different types of soil. However, it prefers well-drained soils such as loamy, sandy loamy, or silty loamy which is rich in organic matter. A pH level between 4.5 and 7.5 is suitable for the crop. Amaranth loves hot and humid weather. The best temperature for amaranth is between 18 and 25 degrees Celsius. Amaranth does not tolerate waterlogging conditions. If there are free-range animals around, you should put a fence around the place.
Preparation of Seedbed for Amaranth
Step-by-Step Seedbed Preparation
Seed Selection and Planting of Amaranth
Amaranth seeds come in many types, each with its own characteristic features. Some are good for grain, while others are better for leafy vegetables. It is important to buy high-quality seeds from trusted sellers, for example, research centres or registered seed distributors. If you can't find registered seed sellers, you can buy seeds from local markets or grow your seeds at home. Before using them, it is important to check their germination rate.
Management of Nutrients to Amaranth
Amaranth is a crop that needs a lot of nutrients. You can use organic or synthetic fertilisers based on the plant's needs. If you want to harvest the whole amaranth plant, it is advisable to improve the soil's fertility before planting. This can be done by adding about 20 - 25 tons of well-decomposed manure per hectare (2 - 2.5 kg per m²) at the ploughing stage. You can also use other chemical fertilisers such as Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and Potash (NPK) at planting. The recommended ratio is 10:10:20. Also, spraying the crop with 1% urea or diluted cow urine after every harvest can help the plants to grow more and yield more.
Pest and Disease Management
Common Amaranth Pests and Diseases
Damage: Suck plant sap, cause curling leaves and stunted plants
Management: Use bio-pesticides and natural predators
Damage: Mine plant stems, create galls
Management: Destroy affected plant parts
Damage: Larvae chew leaves between veins
Management: Use resistant varieties and bio-pesticides
Symptoms: Stem rotting, brown-black lesions
Management: Level land, avoid overwatering, proper spacing
Harvesting and Postharvest Management of Amaranth
Amaranth plants grow at different growth rates. Usually, they are ready to harvest 3 to 4 weeks after sowing. Harvesting can be done in two ways. First, you can pull out the fully grown plants together with their roots and cut off the roots. Second, you can pick the young, tender leaves/branches throughout the growing season. Put the harvested produce under shade. Next, wash the amaranth to remove dirt and insects. Finally, put the amaranth in a clean container or box to stay fresh until it is sold. For grain amaranth, the crop is ready for harvesting when the seeds start to shatter.
Exercise 5.1
- You have an empty plot of land in your school for growing amaranth. Prepare a plan that you will use to grow amaranth in that particular plot.
- You have found two different types of amaranth seeds in your local market. One type is good for grain production, and the other type is good for leafy vegetable production. How would you decide on the type of amaranth seeds to buy for your garden?
- You have noticed that your amaranth plants are not growing as expected. You suspect that the plants might not be getting enough water. How would you manage the watering of your amaranth plants?
- You have noticed that your amaranth plants are infested with pests. How will you get rid of those pests without harming the plants and people who will consume that amaranth?
- You have a piece of land that you are planning to use for amaranth farming. The land has not been used for a while and you need to prepare that land for planting amaranth seeds. How would you prepare it for planting amaranth seeds?
Activity 5.2
Make a project with amaranth in your school and home garden. Follow all the steps from starting to selling your product. Start by planning when and how to:
- obtain production resources including land, labour, capital and inputs, e.g., seeds;
- prepare land;
- plant;
- perform operations for soil water and fertility conservation (if required);
- irrigate (if required);
- apply manure or fertiliser (if required);
- manage weeds, other pests and diseases;
- harvest and perform postharvest handling; and
- perform operations involved in value addition and marketing of the crop.
Implement your project as you have planned. Keep all the important physical and financial records. Record your observations and experiences during the activity including the steps you took, the challenges you faced, and the lessons you have learnt.
Write a summary of what you have learnt from this chapter in your portfolio.
Production of Chinese Cabbage
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn how to grow Chinese cabbage, from planting to selling. The competencies developed will enable you to earn money and get food from the Chinese cabbage you grow.
Think
"Plant with care and it will soon flourish; a symbol of patient and growth"
Getting Started with Chinese Cabbage Production
Chinese cabbage is a type of leafy vegetable. The crop grows quickly and it can be ready in 45, 60 or 80 days. It doesn't need many resources to grow. It can be eaten in many ways. It can be cooked as a vegetable or used in salads while in raw state. It is full of dietary fibres, and minerals such as calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium, iron, and zinc. It also contains vitamins such as vitamins A, C, K, and niacin.
Non-headed Type
Long, thin cabbage with thick stalk and dark green leaves that can grow up to 30 cm. Loose-leaf structure perfect for continuous harvesting.
Grows up to 30cm tall
Continuous harvesting
Head-forming Type
Forms a tight head similar to regular cabbage, often cylindrical and elongated. Perfect for uniform harvest and commercial sales.
Uniform heads
Commercial appeal
Planning for Chinese Cabbage Production
Before starting your Chinese cabbage farm, you should think about a few things. First, decide how much Chinese cabbage you want to produce. Next, choose the type of Chinese cabbage you want to grow. Then, decide when you want to start growing the Chinese cabbage. You also need to know how many resources you will need. Lastly, think about when and where you will sell your cabbages. It is also important to estimate the expected profit from selling the cabbages.
Activity 6.1
- Use the internet or a library to find out about different types of Chinese cabbage that are commonly grown in Tanzania. Look for information about how Chinese cabbage is grown, cared for, harvested, processed, and marketed.
- Go to your school garden or a nearby Chinese cabbage farm. Learn from the gardener how Chinese cabbage is grown, taken care of, harvested, processed, and sold.
- Write down the lessons you have learnt from the tasks 1 and 2 above.
Growing Chinese Cabbage
This section will help you to explore the techniques of growing Chinese cabbage right from planning to postharvesting practices. You will learn about choosing the right seeds and how to plant them. You will also cover the management of water and nutrients to the crop plants, protection of the crop against various pests including diseases and postharvest practices.
Site Selection
Choose fertile, well-drained soil with pH 5.5-7.6, temperatures 15-22°C, and good sunlight
Land Preparation
Dig soil, remove weeds, add well-decomposed manure (20L per m²), and create fine tilth
Seed Selection
Choose clear, strong seeds free from mold. Larger seeds usually grow into stronger plants
Planting Methods
Direct sowing or transplanting from nursery. Space plants 25-35cm apart in rows 30-40cm apart
Choosing a Site
Chinese cabbage needs a fertile and well-drained soil. It likes soil that can hold water well. The best soil pH is between 5.5 and 7.6. The cabbage grows well in temperatures of 15 - 22°C. If it gets colder, the cabbage will start to flower and stop making leaves. It grows best at heights of 500 – 1500 m above sea level. When choosing a site, look for a sunny area with good drainage. Make sure there is a reliable source of water for irrigation. Avoid areas where water can gather and cause waterlogging.
Preparation of Seedbed
Complete Seedbed Preparation Guide
Seed Selection and Planting
Chinese cabbage grows from seeds. The seeds should be clear, strong, and free from mould. Seeds with spots, cracks, or discolouration should be avoided. Larger seeds usually grow into stronger plants. Choose the type that is mostly demanded by customers.
Direct Sowing Method
Seeds of Chinese cabbage can be directly sown in the field using the dibbling method. Place 2-3 seeds in each hole, 25-35 cm apart between holes and 30-40 cm apart between rows. This depends on the type of Chinese cabbage. Keep the seedbed moist by watering. When the seedlings are about 6-10 cm tall, thin them out to leave only one plant per hole. Also, fill in gaps where seeds did not grow.
Transplanting Method
First, prepare your nursery bed well. Drill shallow furrows about 25-30 cm apart. Sow seeds by drilling thinly and covering them with a thin layer of soil. Water the nursery lightly and cover it with dry grass mulch to keep the soil moist. Keep watering as needed. Once the seedlings start to grow, remove the grass cover. Place a partial shade about 60-100 cm high to protect the seedlings from strong sunlight and heavy rain.
Management of Water
Under normal conditions, you need to water the crop plants about 2 to 3 days per week. But you need to think about the soil type, weather situations, and the plant's age. You can use drip, sprinkler, watering can or furrow methods to water the plants.
Management of Nutrients
For the crop to grow well, nitrogenous fertilisers, for example, CAN should be used at least three times. The first application should be two weeks after the plants are in the field. The other two applications should be two weeks apart. For each plant, one tablespoon of fertiliser is enough.
Management of Weeds
You should keep the fields free from weeds throughout the growing season. We use different methods to manage weeds. These include applying mulch, pulling weeds by hand, and hoeing by hand. It is advisable to manage weeds early when they are small and easy to pull out. This is before the plant canopy, or the top part of the plant shades the space between the plants.
Management of Insect Pests and Diseases
Common Chinese Cabbage Pests and Diseases
Damage: Feed on leaves, creating visible mines
Management: Rotate crops and use bio-based pesticides
Damage: Suck sap from leaves, leave honeydew
Management: Hand picking, natural enemies, recommended insecticides
Damage: Larvae feed on leaves extensively
Management: Use bio-pesticides and recommended insecticides
Damage: Suck plant sap, weaken plants
Management: Encourage natural enemies and use recommended insecticides
Symptoms: V-shaped lesions on leaves
Management: Use disease-free seedlings and rotate crops
Symptoms: Black or brown infected veins
Management: Plant on raised beds and avoid water logging
Harvesting and Postharvest Management
Chinese cabbage takes 40-100 days to mature. Non-headed types are ready to eat when the leaves are big enough. How you harvest it depends on demand of the market. Some markets want the very tender leaves inside, which requires to cut off the leaves at the base, above the soil. For markets that want moderately tender leaves, you can carefully pick off the mature outer leaves, letting the inner leaves keep on growing. Headed types are harvested when the leaves are tightly packed together. You cut off the whole head at the soil level.
Exercise 6.1
- If you want to grow Chinese cabbage but your soil is not fertile, what steps would you take to improve the soil?
- You have started growing Chinese cabbage but you realise that the weather is going to be very cold. What would be your next step?
- You have grown Chinese cabbage for three months but it is not showing signs of yielding. What could be wrong and how would you solve it?
- You have noticed that the Chinese cabbage plants are full of pests. How would you solve this problem?
Activity 6.2
Make a project with Chinese cabbage in your school and home garden. Follow all the steps from starting to selling your product. Start by planning when and how to:
- obtain production resources including land, labour, capital and inputs, e.g., seeds;
- prepare land;
- plant (including sowing and transplanting);
- perform operations for soil water and fertility conservation (if required);
- irrigate (if required);
- apply manure or fertiliser (if required);
- manage weeds, other pests and diseases;
- harvest and perform postharvest handling; and
- perform operations involved in value addition and marketing of the crop.
Implement your project as you have planned. Keep all the important physical and financial records. Record your observations and experiences during the activity including the steps you took, the challenges you faced, and the lessons you have learnt.
Write a summary of what you have learnt from this chapter in your portfolio.
Production of Onion
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn how to grow bulb onions, from the start to selling them. The competencies you develop will enable you to earn money and have onions for your meals.
Think
"Offers a rewarding path to grow a resilient, high-demanding crop and essential to kitchens worldwide"
Getting Started with Onion Production
An onion is a type of bulb vegetable. It has a short, underground stem with fleshy leaves at its base forming a bulb. This bulb stores food for the onion plant. Onion is usually a biennial crop, meaning that it takes two growing seasons to complete its lifecycle. In the first season, a seed grows into a plant with leaves and a bulb. Nutrients then build up in the bulb. In the second season, plant grows from the bulb, and produces flowers, and then seeds.
Red Onion
Strong flavor, popular for fresh consumption
Purple Onion
Rich color, excellent for salads
White Onion
Mild flavor, perfect for Mexican cuisine
Yellow Onion
All-purpose, great for cooking
Nutritional Benefits
Onions are very popular and they are eaten as most spices do. This means you can add them to your meals to make them taste better. Onions are also full of nutrients that are good for our bodies. They contain minerals such as calcium, iron, and potassium. These minerals help our bodies use other foods well and work properly. Onions also have vitamins B6, B9, and E. These vitamins also help our bodies to use other foods well and work properly. Therefore, not only do onions taste good, but they are also good for our health.
Rich in Antioxidants
Contains quercetin and sulfur compounds that fight inflammation
Heart Health
Helps lower cholesterol and blood pressure levels
Bone Density
Supports bone health and may prevent osteoporosis
Blood Sugar
Helps regulate blood sugar levels naturally
Planning for Onion Production
Growing onions is one of the ways to earn money. This is how you can do it well. Choose where you will grow your onions. If it is a big area, make sure you have enough water and help. Think about how to get your soil ready for planting, look after it, and keep it healthy. Decide if you will hire people to help you in the weeding or if you will use herbicides to kill weeds. Also, plan how to deal with other onion pests and diseases if they occur.
Activity 7.1
- Use the internet or a library to find out about:
- Different types of onions that are commonly grown in Tanzania;
- How onion is grown, cared for, harvested, processed, and marketed; and
- Nutritional benefits of onion.
- Go to your school garden or a nearby onion farm. Learn from the gardener how onion is grown, taken care of, harvested, processed, and sold.
- Write down the lessons you have learnt from the tasks 1 and 2 above.
Growing Onion
This section will guide you through the process of growing onions. We will start by choosing the best site for onion production. Then we will prepare the seedbed, select the right onion variety, raise seedlings at the nursery and transplant the seedlings. We will also learn how to manage water, and nutrients, and deal with weeds, insect pests and diseases. Remember that successful farming is all about careful planning and regular work effort. Now, let us start.
Site Selection
Choose loamy soil with pH 5.5-6.8, altitude 0-1900m, and temperatures 15-25°C
Land Preparation
Dig soil 25-30cm deep, add 25-40 tons/hectare of manure or compost
Nursery Preparation
Prepare raised, sunken or flat beds, sow seeds 15-20cm apart in rows
Transplanting
Transplant 35-50 day old seedlings with 3-5 leaves at pencil thickness
Onion Varieties in Tanzania
Bombay Red
Features: Small to medium-sized, round, purple-red, strong taste
Maturity: 150 days
Yield: Up to 39,500 kg/hectare
Red Creole
Features: Big, round, red, very strong taste
Maturity: 150 days
Yield: Up to 39,500 kg/hectare
Red Star F1
Features: Big, round, dark red, disease resistant
Maturity: 110-120 days
Yield: Up to 61,800 kg/hectare
Texas Grano
Features: Khaki-colored, mild to strong taste
Maturity: 120 days
Yield: Up to 52,000 kg/hectare
Pest and Disease Management
Common Onion Pests and Diseases
Damage: Suck juice from plants, cause shiny spotted leaves
Management: Crop rotation and recommended pesticides
Damage: Eat side roots, cause plant shrinking and dying
Management: Change crop type, use manure, clean field
Symptoms: Small white spots become large purple blotches
Management: Resistant varieties, crop rotation, fungicides
Symptoms: Leaves turn pale green, then yellow and die
Management: Proper spacing, avoid overwatering, fungicides
Harvesting and Postharvest Management
Onions are ready for harvesting after 90-150 days, depending on the variety. Alternatively, we can start harvesting when 50-75% of the onions have bent their necks. We can uproot the onions by hand or using equipment like a fork or other advanced equipment such as a harvester. If we do it by hand, we water the area first to soften the soil before pulling out the onions. Then, we lay them flat on the top of the beds with their roots up.
Postharvest Processing Steps
Exercise 7.1
- You have a piece of land with suitable soils and climate conditions for onion production. How would you prepare the land for onion production?
- You have a choice of different onion varieties to grow on your farm. Each variety has different characteristics in terms of yield and market demand. How would you decide which variety to grow? Give reasons.
- You are facing a severe drought. How would you manage water requirements for onions in such a situation?
- Pests have started to become a problem in your onion fields. How would you manage these pests without harming the onions?
Activity 7.2
Make a project with onion in your school and home garden. Follow all the steps from starting to selling your product. Start by planning when and how to:
- obtain production resources including land, labour, capital and inputs, e.g., seeds;
- prepare land;
- plant (including sowing and transplanting);
- perform operations for soil water and fertility conservation (if required);
- irrigate (if required);
- apply manure or fertiliser (if required);
- manage weeds, other pests and diseases;
- harvest and perform postharvest handling; and
- perform operations involved in value addition and marketing of the onion.
Implement your project as you have planned. Keep all the important physical and financial records. Record your observations and experiences during the activity including the steps you took, the challenges you faced, and the lessons you have learnt.
Write a summary of what you have learnt from this chapter in your portfolio.
Production of Tomato
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn how to grow tomatoes, from the start to selling them. The competencies developed will enable you to earn money and have tomatoes for your meals.
Think
"A useful, high-demand crop that thrives in gardens and brings flavour to several dishes."
Getting Started with Tomato Production
Tomato is a fruit vegetable that can grow all year round. Tomato production can generate more profit when grown in its off-season. Tomato is full of vitamins A, B, and C. It also has minerals such as iron and phosphorus. Moreover, it has a special ingredient called lycopene. This helps to protect our bodies from certain diseases, for example, heart diseases and cancers.
Globe Tomato
Round, medium-sized, all-purpose tomato
Beefsteak Tomato
Large, meaty, perfect for sandwiches
Plum Tomato
Oval-shaped, ideal for sauces and paste
Cherry Tomato
Small, sweet, perfect for salads
Tomato Growth Habits
Determinate Tomatoes
Grow to a certain height and form compact bush-like shapes. Stop growing taller when they start producing fruit. Perfect for container gardening and small spaces.
Compact growth
Simultaneous ripening
Indeterminate Tomatoes
Keep growing and making new leaves and flowers throughout the season. Need support structures. Ideal for continuous harvest and larger gardens.
Continuous growth
Extended harvest
Semi-determinate Tomatoes
Growth habit between determinate and indeterminate. Live longer than determinate types but more compact than indeterminate varieties.
Balanced growth
Moderate maintenance
Nutritional Benefits
Vitamin A
Supports vision health and immune function
Vitamin C
Boosts immunity and collagen production
Lycopene
Powerful antioxidant for heart health
Potassium
Regulates blood pressure and fluid balance
Planning for Tomato Production
Starting a tomato farm needs planning. First, learn about the tomato market. Speak to sellers and buyers. Ask them questions such as what tomato type is mostly needed, when prices are high, how much volume buyers need, and what varieties are preferred. Use this information to decide when to produce tomatoes for higher profits. Next, choose the type of tomatoes you want to grow. Check if you have enough water, because tomatoes need regular watering to grow well.
Activity 8.1
- Use an internet or a library to find out about different types of tomatoes that are commonly grown in Tanzania. Look for information about how tomato is grown, cared for, harvested, processed, and marketed.
- Go to your school garden or a nearby tomato farm. Learn from the gardener on how tomato is grown, taken care of, harvested, processed, and sold.
- Write down the lessons you have learnt from the tasks 1 and 2 above.
Growing Tomato
To grow tomatoes, first, find a place with good soil and climatic conditions. Prepare a nursery for your seedlings. Prepare a seedbed for your tomatoes. This is where they will grow. Choose the best seeds and sow them in the nursery. When they are about 20 to 30 days old, 12–15 cm tall and have developed 2 to 4 true leaves, move them to the main seedbed.
Site Selection
Choose well-drained sandy loamy or clay loamy soil with pH 5.5-6.5
Land Preparation
Clear land, plough 20-25cm deep, harrow to break soil lumps
Nursery Preparation
Grow seedlings in trays or soil, transplant after 20-30 days
Transplanting
Space plants 50-60cm apart in rows 60-90cm apart
Tomato Varieties in Tanzania
| Variety | Type | Features | Maturity | Yield |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Uwezo RZ F1 | Hybrid | High fruit production, nice color | 65-75 days | 70-90 tons/hectare |
| Assila F1 | Hybrid | High yield, resistant to yellow leaf curl virus | 75 days | 23 tons/acre |
| Anna F1 | Hybrid | Deep red fruit, firm and oval, disease resistant | 75 days | 74 tons/acre |
| Rio Grande | Open-pollinated | Large tomatoes, handles extreme weather | 75-80 days | 12-25 tons/acre |
Essential Management Practices
Key Tomato Management Practices
Pest and Disease Management
Common Tomato Pests and Diseases
Damage: Suck plant sap, cause leaf curling and virus transmission
Management: Soap solution, intercropping, recommended pesticides
Damage: Feed on leaves, cause yellowing and spread viruses
Management: Kerosene spray, resistant cultivars, natural predators
Damage: Larvae feed on leaves and fruits
Management: Recommended insecticides
Symptoms: Irregular spots on leaves, rapid plant death
Management: Preventive fungicides, good cultural practices
Symptoms: Sunken brown-black spots on fruit bottoms
Management: Consistent watering, calcium supply
Symptoms: Yellowing from stem base upwards
Management: Avoid overwatering, control soil pests
Harvesting and Postharvest Management
Tomato takes an average of 70-90 days to mature and become ready for harvesting depending on variety and climatic conditions. Maturity indices include increase in fruit size, change in skin color and increase in juice and sugar content. The main criterion is fruit color change.
Mature Green
Completely green surface
Breaker
Definite break to yellow
Turning
10-30% color change
Pink
30-60% pink or red
Light Red
60-90% pinkish-red
Red Ripe
More than 90% red
Exercise 8.1
- You have been given a plot of land to grow tomatoes. How would you decide when to produce tomatoes to ensure that you make the highest possible profit?
- You have been given a small plot of land and a variety of tomato seeds to start your tomato garden. You want to plan your tomato production to ensure a successful and profitable harvest. What steps would you take to plan for your tomato production?
- Given a small plot of land to prepare for tomato production, what steps would you take to prepare this land for growing tomatoes?
- Mapato has a small plot of land and she plan to grow tomato. Briefly, advice her on how to protect the crop plants from pests and diseases.
- A Form Four school leaver plans to establish a tomato crop field in one of the family fields. What criteria would he consider in choosing a suitable plot for growing tomato.
Activity 8.2
Make a project with tomatoes in your school and home garden. Follow all the steps from starting to selling your product. Start by planning when and how to:
- obtain production resources including land, labour, capital and inputs, e.g., seeds;
- prepare land;
- plant (including sowing and transplanting);
- perform operations for soil water and fertility conservation (if required);
- irrigate (if required);
- apply manure or fertiliser (if required);
- manage weeds, other pests and diseases;
- perform trellising or staking (if required);
- harvest and perform postharvest handling; and
- perform operations involved in value addition and marketing of the tomato.
Implement your project as you have planned. Keep all the important physical and financial records. Record your observations and experiences during the activity including the steps you took, the challenges you faced, and the lessons you have learnt.
Write a summary of what you have learnt from this chapter in your portfolio.
Chapter Nine: Introduction to Poultry Production
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn the meaning and importance of poultry production. You will also learn about poultry farming systems and factors to consider in selecting a poultry production system. The competencies developed from this chapter will enable you to explore and appreciate a wide range of entrepreneurial opportunities existing in the poultry sector. You will also be able to make informed decisions in adapting a poultry rearing system which suits your needs.
Think
"Start with dedication and let your poultry enterprise grow into prosperous, an evidence of your hard work."
The Meaning and Importance of Poultry Production
At your home, school or community, you may have seen various birds as shown in Figures 9.1 (a) - (f). In the coming activity, you will explore various things about those birds as well as other birds which are not shown in the figures.
Activity 9.1
1. Carefully, study the pictures shown in Figures 9.1 (a) to (f).
(a) Identify the bird(s) shown in each of the figures by your local/Swahili name(s) and English name(s).
(b) For birds you have identified, indicate the ones kept by farmers in your area and the purpose of keeping them.
(c) Write down your responses and the lessons you have learnt in your exercise book.
Poultry is a general term for domesticated birds. It includes several species such as those shown in Figures 9.1 (a) to (f). These are chicken or domestic fowl, turkey, duck, goose, guinea fowl, and pigeon, respectively. Poultry production or farming is an enterprise that deals with keeping birds either for home consumption or for commercial purposes of either eggs or meat production. Some poultry species such as peafowls, parrots and partridges can be kept for ornamental or game/sports purposes. The poultry species shown in Figures 9.1 (a) to (f) can be kept for home use or business purposes.
Poultry Production Systems
Poultry are reared in different forms regarding the way they are confined or let free, get fed, and how their produce is collected or harvested.
Activity 9.2
1. Pay a visit to the school poultry unit and nearby poultry farms.
2. Observe and enquire about the ways used to: (a) confine the birds, (b) give the birds feed and water, (c) harvest the produce from the birds, and (d) record production and sales (both digital and manual).
3. Summarise your findings and the lessons you have learnt in this activity in your portfolio.
The selection of a given system for poultry production depends on various factors such as the availability of land, type of poultry, climatic conditions, labour availability and amount of capital the farmer is able and willing to invest. You will understand how these factors influence the selection of poultry production systems as you learn the respective systems. There are three major systems for poultry production. These are free-range systems, semi-intensive systems and intensive housing systems.
Free-range System of Poultry Production
In this system, birds are left free during the day to search for food. During the night, birds are locked inside a house to protect them from bad weather and predators. This system is suitable only where adequate land is available to ensure desired stocking density and to avoid overcrowding. Fields or parts of fields or plots can be kept free from crops to allow birds to move freely from one plot to another in search of food. Nearly 250 adult birds per hectare can be reared using this system.
A free-range system of poultry production is preferred for small-scale organic production of poultry meat and eggs. With this system, housing costs and capital investment are low. However, losses due to predatory animals can be high, wild birds may bring diseases unless proper care is taken, and scientific management practices may not be easily adopted.
To take care of poultry in a free-range system, it is recommended to do the following:
(a) Secure night housing for the chicken. The house is best built off the ground on slats to allow good ventilation and cooling;
(b) Supplementary feeding in the evening is to be given to the chicken when they return to the house, for example, grains;
(c) Laying birds must be provided with clean, dry dark places (nests) to lay their eggs. There should be a ratio of one nest for five birds in the house and the dry grass or other dry litter should be placed in the nests;
(d) Protect mother hens with their young chicks against predators, rain, coldness and wind by providing a box or shelter made of blocks on the ground; and
(e) Ensure that unproductive and old laying birds together with extra male birds should be culled.
Semi-intensive System of Poultry Production
In this system, birds are partly reared in houses and partly in fenced areas. When it is practised in a permanent area, there should be a poultry house(s) followed by a run. At night, birds are confined to houses and during the day, they are given access to runs. The houses should be stationary and runs have to be fenced with wire mesh or any other suitable fencing materials that are locally available.
The runs have to be planted or provided with suitable forage to supply birds with green forage. Fencing of the runs may also be designed in a way that allows rotational runs especially when forage is grown inside the run. In this system, one hectare is estimated to accommodate an average rate of 750 birds. With this system, scientific management operations can be applied to a certain extent and there is more economical use of land compared to a free-range system. However, there is a high cost for fencing and the need for routine cleaning and removal of litter materials from the run.
When runs are not permanent, they are not fenced then movable houses are preferably used. Fold houses and coops are the common movable poultry houses. Fold houses are small movable houses with a run attached to them.
To take care of poultry in a semi-intensive system, it is recommended to do the following:
(a) The runs have to be rotated to give time for the grass to grow and allow for disease-causing organisms to die;
(b) Nests should be supplied in the house for the birds to lay eggs;
(c) Fresh feed and water must be supplied daily. Feed and water containers must also be washed daily;
(d) Programmes for vaccinating and deworming the birds should be followed;
(e) Chicks can be kept in a special brooding box or a small area made for them (brooder).
Intensive Poultry Production System
In this system, birds are confined to houses either on the ground or on wire-netting floors in cages or slats. This housing system is more efficient, convenient and economical for modern commercial poultry production. It has three categories which are deep litter system, slatted floor system and cage or battery system. These sub-divisions of the intensive poultry system are further elaborated here.
Deep Litter System
In this system, the floor of the house can be made of rough concrete or rammed earth. It is then covered with dry litter materials up to the depth of about 8 cm in the broiler and 15 cm in the layers' house. However, for egg-laying birds, a 5 cm layer of litter material should be added every two weeks until it reaches the right depth. The birds stay inside a house all the time. Arrangements for feed, water, nests and perches are made inside the house. Several litter materials such as rice husks, sawdust, old newspaper, wood shavings, chopped straw, dried leaves and crushed nutshells can be used depending on their cost and availability.
In the deep litter housing system, the welfare of birds is maintained to some extent. The system also offer manure which is useful in crop production. Bacterial and parasitic diseases may be a problem because of the direct contact between birds and litter. Respiratory problems may also emerge due to dust from the litter. Besides, the cost of litter may be an additional expenditure on production cost if it is not readily available.
When poultry droppings pile up, they make the litter thick. It is crucial to keep the litter dry. Do this by mixing the droppings with the litter regularly. If the litter gets too wet, it can clump together. This is not good for the poultry. When the litter is wet, it can become a home for harmful micro-organisms. So, keep stirring the litter often to break the build-up of these harmful micro-organisms. If there are more chicken droppings than litter, add more fresh litter. This helps to keep the litter dry and it reduces the build-up of ammonia, which is harmful to poultry. When the litter gets more than 30 cm deep, remove it and bring in fresh litter. Follow the procedures you have already learnt to bring in fresh litter.
Slatted Floor System
In this system, birds are confined in a house with a slatted floor. This floor can be made of iron rods, plastic or treated wooden poles, usually 0.6 - 1 m above the ground level to facilitate the fall of droppings through slats. Wooden poles or iron rods can be used lengthwise of the house with interspaces of 2.5 cm between rods or poles. The house should be roofed with water-proof material. If the poultry pen is roofed with an iron roof, then it needs to put some insulation under the roof. Feeding, watering and egg collection have to preferably be done from outside the house due to the size of this type of building.
The slatted floor system for poultry is good. It needs less space for each bird. There is no need for bedding or litter. It is easy to clean up droppings because they fall through the slats. This system also helps to keep the house clean. It stops parasites and diseases from spreading because birds don't touch their droppings. The system also allows a lot of ventilation into the house. However, it is more expensive to start with, than regular solid floors. It is hard to get feeds back if they fall through the slats. The system also doesn't let you use the building as much. Flies can get in through the slats, making the fly problem worse.
Cage System
This system is mainly used for commercial egg production. In this system, poultry are confined in compartments surrounded by bars or wire. These compartments are called cages. The cage is large enough to permit limited movement and it allows a bird to stand and sit comfortably. The cages are usually made up of strong galvanized wire and they can be fitted with stands on the floor of a house or hung from the roof. The number of birds per cage varies from 1 to 4 depending on cage size, the size of the bird, and the farmer's preference.
The cages are arranged into rows or layers called tiers. The tiers can be 3 to 6. The cage should have a sloping floor for easy rolling and collection of eggs. Feeders and drinkers are attached to cages from outside except nipple drinkers where a pipeline is installed through or above cages. In medium-scale egg production, feeding and egg collection are done manually. In large-scale poultry farms, auto-operated feeding trolleys and egg collection belts can be used. Depending on the type of cages, the droppings are collected in trays fitted below the cages, on belts, on the floor or in deep pits under the cages.
Advantages of Cage Poultry Housing System
(a) The system requires less labour;
(b) There is no wastage of feed and space;
(c) It is difficult for the birds to catch pathogens that will cause them infections;
(d) Vices such as egg eating and pecking are minimal;
(e) Sick birds can be easily identified and isolated for treatment;
(f) Unproductive birds can be easily identified and culled;
(g) Birds have more protection from internal parasites and soil-borne illnesses;
(h) There is less cracking of eggs as the birds cannot perk on the eggs and the eggs are cleaner;
(i) It is easy to collect eggs; and
(j) There is less mortality rate.
Challenges of Cage Poultry Housing System
(a) It involves high initial investment costs;
(b) Handling of manure may be a problem. Generally, flies become a greater nuisance;
(c) The laying birds may be subjected to an illness called cage layer fatigue. The bird lies on its side giving the impression that it is affected by paralysis, hence named cage paralysis or cage layer fatigue. It may be due to calcium and phosphorus deficiency;
(d) Broilers reared in this housing system have high incidences of breast blisters especially when the weight is more than 1.5 kg; and
(e) The incidence of blood spots in eggs is higher.
Note that there is a wide range of poultry species that may slightly differ in management. The details for poultry production systems elaborated in the previous section are general and, in some cases, more applicable to chickens. Depending on the poultry species to be produced, some modifications or additional facilities may be required, for example, a pond facility is required for housing waterfowls such as ducks and geese. Therefore, advice should be sought from teachers, local extension workers or other poultry experts to practise particular poultry production systems properly.
Activity 9.3
1. Revise the findings you have collected in activity 9.2 and if possible, revisit the poultry units you visited earlier.
2. Find out the good and bad aspects of each of the systems and suggest improvements that can be made.
3. Summarise your findings in your portfolio.
Selection of a Suitable Poultry Production System
Several people rear poultry in small, medium or large size of production by using one or a combination of the systems learnt. Choosing a system which suits your needs is a task which involves making a thorough analysis of several aspects before choosing a particular system.
Activity 9.4
1. Use an internet or a library to find out how the following aspects can influence your decision in choosing a poultry production system to use:
(a) Poultry species, purpose and level of production;
(b) Technical know-how;
(c) Availability of land;
(d) Capital;
(e) Climatic or environmental conditions;
(f) Market of the products;
(g) Availability of building materials; and
(h) Availability of feed resources.
2. Summarise your findings in your portfolio.
Incubation and Brooding in Poultry
Incubation in poultry production is the process of providing suitable conditions for a fertile egg to hatch into a chick. For the chick to develop, the egg must be kept under suitable conditions of temperature, humidity and ventilation. Brooding refers to the special care given to chicks immediately after being hatched in order to ensure their health and survival. Incubation and brooding in poultry can be done naturally by the female birds or artificially by a farmer through the use of artificial incubators and brooders. In choosing or deciding the type of incubation and brooding suitable for your poultry farming enterprise, you will need to be well informed on the way how each operates. You will also have to be informed of the advantages and disadvantages of each type of incubation and brooding. The following are some of the important features of natural and artificial incubation and brooding.
Natural Incubation and Brooding
In small-scale production, poultry incubate their eggs naturally by female birds sitting on them in the nests. This keeps the eggs warm enough to hatch. This is also called natural incubation. Different species of poultry have different incubation periods or hatching times (refer to Table 9.1). After hatching, natural brooding is done by female birds. They provide warmth to chicks and protect them against predators. There are some kinds of birds which are better brooders than others. For successful natural incubation, it is important to find and use the birds which are good egg sitters. The farmer should provide clean water and high-quality feeds to both female birds and chicks.
| Poultry species | Incubation period (days) |
|---|---|
| Chickens | 21 |
| Ducks, Geese, Turkeys, & Guinea fowls | 28 |
| Pigeons | 17 - 19 |
| Peafowls | 26 - 28 |
| Pheasants | 24 |
| Quails | 16 - 24 |
Advantages of Natural Incubation and Brooding
(a) The system does not require high costs for investment.
(b) With suitable conditions, hatchability is higher than artificial incubation.
(c) It applies to small-scale poultry breeders/home flocks.
(d) No specific skills are required.
Disadvantages of Natural Incubation and Brooding
(a) Possibility of disease infection and parasitic infestation is high.
(b) Broody bird takes care of a small number of eggs.
(c) Broody bird may die before hatching thus losing the whole batch.
(d) Hatching may be poor due to an uncontrolled environment.
Artificial Incubation and Brooding
In commercial farms where a large number of birds are kept, incubation is done artificially by the use of egg incubators. Their capacity ranges from 60 to a million eggs in one machine.
Advantages of Artificial Incubation
(a) A large number of chicks may be hatched at a time.
(b) Sanitary measures are carried out easily.
(c) Infertile eggs can be removed from the incubator at any stage of incubation.
(d) Chick supply is constant.
Challenges of Artificial Incubation
(a) There are high initial and running costs.
(b) It requires skilled labour hence high labour cost.
(c) There is a high possibility of egg contamination if the collection of eggs is from contaminated sources.
(d) Production of chicks may stop completely due to the breakdown of machines especially where spare parts and technicians are not reliably available.
Artificial Brooding
Where a large number of chicks are to be reared at once, artificial brooding is done. This is done by keeping chicks in a structure called a brooder where feeds, water, and heat are provided. Artificial brooding starts when chicks are one day old and last at 4 to 6 weeks of age, depending on weather conditions. However, chicks can be reared in the brooder for 6 - 9 days in hotter areas and 12 - 21 days in colder areas. Most brooders should be round because corners encourage overcrowding. A square brooder can also be used provided that the corners are made round by using plywood or boxes. In large commercial poultry farming, the brooding house is expected to be at least 100 metres from other buildings on the farm.
The following brooder temperatures have to be maintained: Day 1-2 (34 - 35°C); Day 3 - 4 (32 - 33°C); Day 5 - 6 (30 - 31°C); Day 7 (29 - 30°C); and Day 8 onwards 28 - 30°C. The brooder temperature requirement is similar for all types of chicks. There are various sources of heat for a brooder. These include gas brooder lamps, electric bulbs with 100 Watts, infrared bulbs, charcoal burners, clay-pot burners and lanterns.
Temperature and humidity in a brooder have to be properly managed for chicks to live comfortably. This can be achieved by using an accurate thermometer and hygrometer (preferably digital) to measure the temperature and humidity during the process regularly. Temperature and comfort in the brooder can be monitored by observing the response or behaviour of chicks to the brooder temperature and other conditions, for example, chicks' distribution.
When the temperature is correct, chicks spread evenly, their noise level shows satisfaction and chicks distribute themselves evenly. When the temperature is too low, chicks crowd to the heat sources in the brooder and will make noisy and continuous unhappy sounds to seek attention. When the temperature is too high, chicks stay away from the sources of heat, make no noise, and pant while drooping their heads and wings. Sometimes chicks show extreme discomfort which might be caused by an uneven light distribution, external noises or unpleasantly cold air blowing through a brooder. This kind of distribution of chicks requires investigation to find out the actual cause and provide a solution.
Planning for a Poultry Farming Enterprise
The goal of a poultry farm is to make money by managing it well. But to do that, the farm needs to be planned carefully. Before starting a poultry farm, there are a few things to think about. These include:
(a) Site Selection
When choosing a site for a poultry farm, there are important factors to consider. Considering those factors will help in selecting the right site for a poultry farming enterprise. These are as follow:
(i) Local government laws: Make sure the farm is in an area where poultry farming is allowed by the local government.
(ii) Wind direction: Select a location that takes advantage of wind direction to minimise pollution from the poultry house and avoid transmission of diseases from one poultry house/farm to another.
(iii) Natural terrain and landscaping: Look for a site that can use the natural landscape to reduce construction costs.
(iv) Good drainage, avoid flood-prone areas: Find an area with good drainage to prevent flooding and water-related issues.
(v) Easy manure disposal: Select a site where it is easy to dispose of poultry manure.
(b) Parasites and Diseases in the Area
Many parasites and diseases can harm poultry. It is important to know which parasites and diseases are common in your area. This will help you to prevent and control them. For example, a farmer should know which diseases require vaccinations and when to give them. They should also know about other ways to control parasites and diseases.
(c) Source of Poultry Stock
Finding reliable sources of high-quality poultry stock is important. Look for a stock that is affordable and of good quality. You can ask other poultry farmers about their experiences. When ordering chicks, make sure that you do it well ahead of time. When placing an order, you should say how many chicks you want, what kind of poultry, and when you want them. Some hatcheries also sell older birds called growers, which can be a good option for poultry meant for egg production.
(d) Market
Before starting a poultry farm, you need to find out about the markets available in your area. This will help you to decide how big your farm should be. There are two types of markets for poultry products: open or free markets, and contracted or formal markets. It is important to figure out how much you will be able to market. This helps you to determine the size of your farm and how much you can produce.
(e) Capital Needed for the Farm
When we talk about capital in a poultry farm, we mean all the things we need to make it work. This includes buildings, equipment, and other things that help the farm to be productive. We also need money for things such as paying workers and buying supplies, such as chicks and feed. All of these things together are called capital. There are different kinds of capital, for example, fixed capital for buildings and equipment, and operating capital for things we need every day. We also need money to buy all of these things, and that is called liquid capital. It is important to have a good balance of these different types of capital. There are different ways to get the money we need, for example, saving up over time, borrowing from banks or other places, or getting grants or donations from people who want to help.
(f) Availability of Feeds
There are two ways to get feed for your birds. One way is to make the feed yourself at home. This means collecting different ingredients and mixing them following a formula. It might be cheaper, but it takes a lot of work. Sometimes, some of the ingredients are only available at certain times of the year. So, they might not always be easy to find. Another way to get feed for your chickens is to buy it from companies that make chicken feeds. You can buy it directly from the company or from stores that sell it. Many different companies make chicken feeds, so you can choose the one that is better for your birds based on its reputation or with the help of poultry experts.
(g) Manure Disposal
Poultry that are kept under intensive systems produce high amount of manure. Depending on how many chickens you have, this can cause problems in the area around the farm. For example, a bird that weighs 1.8 kg can produce 0.11 kg of manure every day, 0.80 kg every week, 3.5 kg every month, and 41.50 kg every year. We need to take care of poultry manure in a way that is good for the environment. There are different ways we can use to handle poultry manure in the right way. We need to make sure that we choose the best option that helps the environment, plants, and animals on the farm. The following are some of the ways to deal with poultry manure:
(i) Spreading: You can spread the poultry manure on fields where crops grow. It can be used instead of artificial fertilisers. The amount of manure you can spread depends on how good the soil is, but usually, you can spread about 4 - 15 tons of manure per hectare.
(ii) Composting: You can mix the poultry manure with other materials to make compost. Compost is good for the soil and can help plants grow well.
(iii) Selling: Some people might want to buy your poultry manure. They can use it to make natural fertilisers.
(iv) Feeding fish: You can put fresh poultry manure in ponds where fish live. The manure will fertilise the pond.
(v) Feeding other animals: You can use processed chicken manure to feed animals such as cattle, goats, and sheep. These animals have special stomachs that can handle it.
(h) Infrastructures and Services
Infrastructures are important for poultry farming. They include things such as roads, transportation, and access to markets. These things help the poultry farm to run smoothly. In places like Tanzania, urban and peri-urban areas have better infrastructures than rural areas. That is why it is easier to have big poultry farms in urban and peri-urban areas. It is also important to have the poultry houses near a road or railway that goes to the main market. This makes it easy to bring in inputs such as feeds for the poultry and take out products such as eggs and birds to sell. Services for poultry farming include things such as water supply and electricity. These services help the poultry farm to run smoothly. It is important to have an alternative source of power in case of power off from public sources. This is especially important for places such as the hatchery units or brooders. It is also important to have enough clean and safe water for the poultry farm to work well.
(j) Taking Care of Poultry
We have to pay a close attention in making sure that everything happens at the right time, keep everything clean, and keep good records. This needs someone who knows what he/she should do to make sure that everything happens the right way. Therefore, as a poultry farmer, it is important to always be ready to learn how to take care of the poultry in the best way possible.
Exercise 9.2
1. Back home on your holiday, your parent/guardian ask you to advise about starting a poultry project to increase income. What aspects will you consider in advising your parent/guardian? Why have you chosen those aspects?
2. You have been appointed as a member of your school projects committee. The committee is looking for the possibility of expanding and/or starting new poultry project(s). What poultry species and production system(s) will you advise the committee to practise in your school? Give reasons.
Write a summary of what you have learnt from this chapter in your portfolio.
Chapter Ten: General Principles and Practices of Chicken Production
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about the breeds and types of chickens. You will also learn about general management in housing, feeding and health of chickens. The competencies developed will enable you to carry out general management practices in chicken production enterprises.
Think
"Lay the foundation for successful chicken production"
Chicken Types
Different types of chickens have different characteristics, such as body size, growth rate, egg-laying ability, and resistance to diseases. You need to know the characteristics of different chicken breeds to choose the most suitable breed for your farming goals and conditions. Some chicken breeds are better suited for meat production, while others are known for their high egg production. Understanding the types and breeds of chickens helps you to make informed decisions about breed selection, feeding requirements, and overall management practices. It will also allow you to plan and implement appropriate housing and management systems based on the specific needs of the chicken breed you are working with.
Kinds of chickens can be grouped according to type. Type of chicken is a term which describes the general shape and form as suited to a function of the bird. There are four basic types of chickens which are egg-type, meat-type, dual-purpose chickens, that is, for both meat and eggs and ornamental chickens.
Egg-type Chickens
This group involves chickens specifically developed for egg production. They are usually light in weight compared to meat-type chickens. They do not easily go broody, that is, they do not want to sit on their eggs to hatch them. The egg-type chickens are called layers or eggers.
Meat-type Chickens
This group specifies chickens developed for meat production. They are heavier than egg-type chickens. They do not tolerate the high ambient temperatures of the tropics as the egg-type chickens. They only lay a few eggs. However, in the commercial production of meat, these chickens are sold before they reach the stage of laying eggs. The meat-type chickens are called broilers.
Dual-purpose Chickens
This group of chicken is developed to produce both eggs and meat. This type of chicken is popular in the tropics. They are of medium weight and they sometimes go broody.
Ornamental Chickens
This group involves chickens kept for their unique beauty in their appearance and they are not mainly used for egg or meat production. They can be reared and then sold to earn money or kept in recreational gardens for show where money can be charged for the services provided. However, ornamental chickens are not widespread in Tanzania. Examples of ornamental chickens are Phoenix, Brahma, Polish, Orloff, Ayam, Silkie, and Dwarf and Long Crower chickens.
Activity 10.1
Consider chickens that are kept at your school, home or nearby your school/home then;
(a) with reasons identify the main purpose of farmers rearing those chickens.
(b) what can you suggest for improvement of chicken production in those areas.
Chicken Breeds
Chickens appear in different colours and sizes and other various traits or characteristics of each particular type. A chicken breed is a group of chickens that share certain traits, for example, feather colour, egg colour, and type of comb. A comb is the fleshy growth on the head of a chicken. In most cases, breeds are named based on their origin but emphasis is put on developing them on important economic characteristics, for example, meat and egg quality and quantity. There are exotic breeds (those originating in foreign countries) and indigenous breeds (those originating in local countries).
The Exotic Breeds
The exotic breeds of chicken are either purebreds or hybrids. A purebred refers to offspring resulting from true breeding. True breeding is a way to produce offspring that would carry the same phenotype as the parents. Phenotype means observable characteristics that can easily be seen or measured. The exotic purebreds are further grouped into heavy and light breeds. The heavy breeds of chicken have generally heavy body weights and are suitable for meat production. Heavy breeds provide a valuable carcass which is why they are more suitable for meat than egg production. They include breeds such as New Hampshire, Rhode Island Red, Cornish, and White Plymouth Rock. Light breeds are generally small in size and are early maturing. They are mainly raised for egg production. They include breeds such as White Leghorn and Ancona. Due to their small size, light breeds are not very suitable for meat production. Exotic purebred chickens are rare in poultry farming except in breeder farms.
Hybrids of Exotic Chickens
Different pure breeds can be crossed to produce hybrids. Such hybrids usually show increased fitness compared to their purebred parents. The broiler hybrids are developed for certain intended fitness characteristics in meat production. For example, heavy weight and fast growth, feed efficiency (increased body weight gain per unit of feed consumed), conformation (characteristic shape and form), hardness to living conditions, meat yield, reduced fat content and product uniformity. Similarly, layer hybrids are developed for certain intended traits. These traits include high egg production, hardness to living conditions as well as improved eggshell quality and colour.
There are many kinds of hybrids. The most common include light, medium and heavy hybrids. The light and medium hybrids are for egg production purposes while heavy hybrids are for meat production.
Activity 10.2
1. Think carefully about the exotic breeds and hybrids you have learnt in this section, and state with reasons whether they are suitable to be reared at your school/home.
2. Summarise your opinions and lessons learnt from this activity in your portfolio and present them in class for discussion.
The Local Indigenous Breeds
There are several indigenous breeds in Tanzania and other countries in Africa. These breeds however, are genetically and phenotypically different. That is, they neither have similar genes that control traits passed from one generation to the next nor observable characteristics that can easily be seen or measured. Instead, they are groups of chickens that originate and fit more to a particular set of ecological conditions. These chickens show some similar characteristics which make them different from other chickens of different ecological conditions. Since chicken groups of such kinds originate from places with a given set of ecological conditions, they are termed as ecotypes rather than breeds. Examples of local ecotypes found in Tanzania are Kuchi, Ching'wekwe, Singamagazi, Unguja and Pemba.
Indigenous chickens are very good at surviving in our country. They are strong and can tolerate different weather and diseases that are common in their areas. They can also find food easily and are good at taking care of their young ones. Because of these reasons, many small farmers prefer to keep indigenous chickens. These chickens do not produce as many eggs or as much meat as exotic or commercial chicken breeds though the flavour of the eggs and meat is preferred.
Hybrids of Local Indigenous and Exotic Chickens
Since local indigenous ecotypes fit well with our local condition but they are low producers of meat and eggs, the development of hybrids of local ecotypes and exotic breeds becomes important. Currently, there are some hybrids of this kind of crossing. These include chickens such as Kuroller, Tanbro and Sasso. These kinds of hybrid grow fast and produce more eggs and meat than local indigenous ecotypes. They also fit more to local conditions, for example, they can tolerate high ambient temperatures and diseases.
Activity 10.3
1. Identify the indigenous chicken groups found in your area. For every group of chickens, write their observable or distinguishing characteristics, and, where possible, include their pictures.
2. Summarise your responses in your portfolio.
Exercise 10.1
1. Compare and contrast the characteristics of the hybrid layers, hybrid broiler and indigenous breed types. Based on their traits, which one would you recommend for a small-scale farmer primarily interested in egg production and why?
2. If you are a poultry farmer in a region with harsh weather conditions and frequent diseases, would you prefer to raise indigenous breeds or exotic breeds? Justify your choice by considering the survival and productivity aspects of the breed.
3. If you were to start a poultry farm in your local area, and you are interested in raising hybrid chickens, which one between layer and broiler hybrids would you choose? Give reasons.
4. A poultry farmer in Tanzania has been raising the indigenous breed but is not satisfied with the meat and egg production. Suggest a suitable hybrid or exotic breed she could introduce to improve their farm's productivity and give reasons for your suggestion.
5. You are a farmer who wants to start a small-scale chicken enterprise and you are interested in raising chickens for both egg and meat production. What type of chicken would be suitable for your farm? Give reasons.
6. What type of chickens would be recommended for a beginner chicken keeper who wants regular egg laying? Why?
Housing for Chickens
Chicken housing refers to the confinement of birds in a purpose-built enclosure. The purpose of housing chickens is to keep them safe from very hot or very cold weather. Housing chickens also keeps them safe from bad weather like rain or storms. Housing also protects chickens from animals that might harm them, and people trying to steal them. It also stops other animals such as rodents and wild birds from reaching them. To achieve the purpose of housing, one needs to know the basic requirements of a chicken house and adhere to good design, proper location, positioning, suitable floor, walls and roof, living space, basic equipment, and proper farm layout or arrangement.
The Basic Requirements of the Chicken House
A good chicken house needs to have enough space for the birds to live comfortably. Chickens require an extremely good temperature to produce well. Chicken's requirement for the environmental temperature varies with age. Chicks should be started at 35°C in the first week after being hatched. The temperature is then gradually reduced to 20°C - 24°C by the fifth week. Broilers reared at ambient temperatures below 18°C are heavier than similar stock reared within the 18 - 35°C range, but their feed utilization will be less. Laying poultry produces the greatest number of eggs and the largest sized eggs at 13 - 24°C. Similarly, feed is best used by chickens when the temperature is between 21°C and 24°C. When the environment gets hotter, chickens eat less and their behaviour changes. Within the temperature range of 5 - 30°C, there is a reduction of about 1.6% in feed intake for every 10°C increase in ambient temperature. When the temperature goes above 24°C, the number of eggs produced decreases and the eggs become smaller. If the temperature keeps on increasing and reaches 38°C or higher, it can cause death. When the weather is very hot and humid, chickens may be more likely to die because their bodies have a harder time struggling to cool down through breathing.
Poultry houses should also have enough airflow or ventilation. Good ventilation in poultry houses is necessary for the removal of dust, ammonia and water vapour from the air and litter. The living area in a chicken house should be dry and the light should be evenly distributed. The chicken house must be protected from vermin and wild birds. The chicken house should also be well-arranged inside and should last for a long time.
Location for Chicken Houses
Location is an important factor to think about when it comes to housing. Here are some important things to think about when choosing a location. Regardless of the type of house, all chicken houses need to be on land that drains well, protected from floods, and easy to get to and from the road. The chicken house should also be set in a place where it is easy to find inputs such as chicks and feeds. In addition, the chicken house should be located near a good market.
Positioning of Chicken Houses
Chicken houses should be well-ventilated, reasonably cool in hot environments, and free from strong winds. Curtains have to be provided to protect chickens against winds, especially during brooding. In hotter areas, the long axis of the house should run from east to west. This will prevent the direct sunshine over the birds. In colder areas, it is desirable to construct houses facing south or southeast to get maximum sunlight. The distance between two houses for birds of the same age group should be at least 18 m to allow proper ventilation. However, the young stock house should be 45 to 100 m away from the houses having adult stocks to prevent diseases. To avoid ventilation problems, the width of the house should not exceed 9 m in open-sided houses. The height of the house depends upon the temperature of the place. Generally, the height of the house should be 2.4 - 3 m from the foundation to the roof line. When height is more it helps to reduce the inside temperature.
Floors and Walls in Chicken Houses
The floor of the house should be moisture-proof, free from cracks, easily cleaned, rat proof and durable. The different types of floors in use are all-litter floors, all-slate floors, slate and litter floors, wire and litter floors, and sloping wire floors. The walls and partitions must be solid enough to support the roof and withstand heavy winds. The wide variation is possible depending on the climatic conditions as well as the availability and cost of construction materials. Every main and rear door of the chicken house should have a footbath with disinfectant for disease control.
Roofs in Chicken Houses
The roofs of chicken houses must be waterproof. Roof insulation keeps the building cool in a hot environment. In areas that become very hot during the day, it is a good idea to paint your roof with a special kind of paint that reflects the sunlight, for example, aluminium paint. An overhang of 0-9 m will help to prevent the rainwater from splashing inside the house. The climatic conditions and age of birds will determine the extent of side openings. Usually half to two-thirds area of the side walls is kept open in an open-sided house fitted with wire mesh. In areas where the temperature is high and continuous, more than two-thirds of the side wall area may be left open for proper ventilation. In broader houses half of the area is left open, in grower and layer houses two-thirds is left open while a maximal ventilation is required in cage houses.
Space in Chicken Houses
Floor space and equipment in the chicken house, vary with the system of rearing and the size of the birds. In a free-range system, a chicken needs about 20 - 30 cm² of floor space in the house. In a deep litter system, a minimum floor space of 30 cm² per broiler and 50 cm² per layer chicken is required. However, in hot areas, the floor space may be increased to some extent by reducing the number of birds kept in a given unit of area. In a slatted floor system, the stocking space in a house is 6 to 8 birds per square metre. In the cage system, the recommended size of a cage for one bird is 30 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm. The number of birds per cage varies from 1 to 4 depending on cage size, the size of the bird, and the farmer's preference. In semi-intensive systems particularly house and run, the living space in the house depends on environmental conditions. However, the stocking density of 4 - 5 birds per square metre in a house can be used.
Farm Layout or Arrangement
It is important to arrange the farm in a good way. Livestock houses should be built in relation to places where feed is stored, where manure is disposed of, and other important facilities on the farm. This will help in making sure that labour is used properly. There should be sufficient space per animal for resting and well-arranged facilities such as feeding and watering troughs. This will contribute to yield improvement of animals and it also makes the work of the operator easier. The feed storerooms should be located near the animal houses. Generally, feeds should be kept in the middle of the building where animals live and feed.
It is important to carefully plan the main path in the middle of the main chicken house. This has to be done by considering the easiness of reaching feed stores and places for collecting eggs or broilers from where the birds live. Likewise, there should be isolation rooms for arrival and sick chicken. The isolation rooms should be positioned in a corner of the main house in a manner that the arrival and sick chickens cannot be reached by other chickens. In addition, the quarantine sheds need to be placed at the entrance of the farm. This makes it easier to separate new birds that are purchased from outside and those that come back from a market or other places where they might have been exposed to the risk of infection.
Chicken House Types
Chicken houses should be designed in a way that enables birds to easily be taken care of, and can produce without stress. Chicken houses should also be designed to maintain a comfortable ambient temperature in the house by removing excessive heat and moisture produced by the birds. There are two main types of chicken houses that poultry farmers commonly use. These are closed and open-sided houses.
Closed Houses
A closed house is a completely enclosed house with no windows. Conditions inside the closed house are kept as close as possible to what birds need to be healthy and comfortable. Extractor fans or ventilators are used to take out the air and bring in fresh air into the house through intake openings. Artificial light is used to light up the interior of the house. The width of the closed house is usually greater than 13 metres. Closed houses are also called controlled environment houses. This type of house is not commonly used in our country.
Open-sided Houses
In our country, open-sided houses are the most common. Usually, half to two-thirds area of the side walls are kept open in open-sided houses, but fitted with wire mesh. In areas where temperature is continuously high, more than two-thirds of the side wall area may be left open for proper ventilation. Curtains are often used to prevent the house from getting too cold at night. Open-sided houses rely on the free flow of air through the house for ventilation. They work well in most places except in extremely cold temperatures. They are also preferred because they are cheaper. Generally, a chicken house should not be expensive, however, it should be strong, durable, comfortable and safe.
The basic construction requirements for an open-sided house are as follow:
(a) Widths: The width should not exceed 12.6 m. The houses wider than this will not provide ample ventilation during hot weather.
(b) Heights: Most open-sided poultry houses have a stud that is 2.4 m long. This represents the distance from the foundation or base of a building to the roofline or top. Since it is always hot in most parts of Tanzania, it is recommended to increase the stud height of the house to 3 m. The centre height should be 5.2 m.
(c) Lengths: Depending on the level of the land, you can choose any length that is convenient for you. However, for small units, 10.3 m is recommended.
(d) Foundation: A solid and adequate foundation should support the building. Concrete and other termite-proof materials should be used. The evenness (how smooth and level) of the foundation determines the evenness of the completed building.
(e) Floor: Concrete or rammed earth floor can be used. However, with disease-control programmes, the concrete or similar floor is mandatory. Such a floor is also necessary when the soil is dense and can absorb and transfer water from the lower subsoil. But, in certain areas where the soil is sandy, a concrete slab is not used when birds are placed on the floor.
(f) Walls: In hot (tropic) climate such as Tanzania, only the bottom 30 cm of both front and back sides, can be covered while the rest is left open with wire mesh. Where cages are used, a roof over the cage may be adequate. High-quality wire mesh for the sides is a good investment. A fishing net can also be used instead of wire mesh, but it is difficult to clean and disinfect.
(g) The roof: The roof could be made from any roofing material. The shape of the roof recommended is a gable roof with the pitch varying from ¼ - ½. Insulation of the roof can be provided by using a thatch roof as this provides the best cooling effect in the house. If thatch cannot be used, it is advisable to use aluminium sheets. These sheets have the advantage of reflecting heat from the sun and are simple to take care of. The roof sheets need to be thick enough and well attached to the frame so that they don't get blown away by strong winds. If galvanized iron sheets are used for roofing, they must be covered with palm branches or similar materials to reduce heat absorption. In addition, if other materials such as fibre-cement plates, galvanized steel plates or tiles are used, it is advisable to paint the roof while to reduce heat absorption. If the white paint is properly taken care of, it can make the building cooler by 3 to 8 degrees Celsius on hot days.
Equipment in Chicken Houses
A good chicken house needs the right equipment for keeping birds. The equipment will make it easy for birds to get food, water, or anything else they need. The equipment in a chicken house depends on how the chickens are raised, kind and age of the chicken. A well-constructed chicken house has to be equipped with feeders, drinkers, perches, nests, catching devices, broody coops, and other items considered necessary for production. The equipment must be durable, fairly simple in construction, movable and easy to clean and disinfect.
Feeders and Drinkers
Feeders and drinkers can be automated or filled by hand. Feeders and drinkers should also be constructed in such a way that: (a) they are easy to fill; (b) they are easy to clean; (c) wastage of feed or water is minimised; (d) the birds cannot stand or roost in them and contaminate feed or water; (e) the birds can reach the feed or water so long there is any in the feed or water; (f) there is enough feeding or drinking space per bird; (g) feeders and drinkers are high enough that the birds cannot scratch litter in them. Various designs of ready-made feeders and drinkers can be bought or made on a farm by using locally available resources.
Laying Nests
The laying nests should be big enough, easy to clean and disinfect, dark, cool and well-ventilated especially in hot areas. They also need to be placed in a convenient position. It is also important to consider that hens prefer to have privacy when they lay their eggs. Therefore, they like nests that are slightly dark inside. Nests should be provided with a perch for easy entrance. They are generally placed at a height of 10 - 15 cm from the floor to enable birds to jump into them easily. Nests should be comfortable and safe by providing litter material on the nest floor and they should be properly constructed. They must have a hip to prevent spillage of the litter material. They must also have a slopped roof to avoid birds roosting on the nest roof. There are individual and communal nests.
The Individual Laying Nests
The size of an individual nest should be 31 cm length × 35 cm width × 35 cm height. For every 4 hens, there should be 1 nest. Individual nests are usually built in groups of 5 nests wide and 2 or 3 rows high. These nests should have sloping roofs to prevent birds from sitting or sleeping on them. The bottom part of these nests should be movable for easy cleaning. Due to the hot weather in many areas of Tanzania, it is advisable to use wire mesh on the back side of the nests instead of solid material.
Communal Nests
These are unpartitioned boxes of about 2.4 m long by 0.6 m wide with an opening at each end through which the birds enter and leave. Each has a sloping cover that is hinged so that it may be opened for gathering the eggs. The communal nest of 1.8 m length by 0.3 m width by 0.6 m height is enough for 50 hens.
Perches
Layer and dual-purpose chickens managed in systems other than cages have to preferably be equipped with perches. Perches are horizontal wooden bars or poles in chicken houses that birds use to sleep or sit on. Birds have a natural behaviour of roosting on higher places so perches provide them with the thing they like. The most popular perches used are 5 cm by 8 cm or 5 cm by 10 cm pieces placed on the edge with upper corners rounded. Each bird needs a perching space allowance of about 15 cm depending upon the breed. The perches should be placed 20-25 cm apart.
Broody Coops
This is a nest or cage that is commonly used to confine broody birds to stop broodiness. Broody coops have bottoms made of wire mesh, which discourages chickens from sitting and being inactive.
Carrying Devices
The most carrying device in poultry farming is transport or carrying crates. These crates are designed for holding and carrying chickens and other poultry birds. The catching crates should be designed in such a way that they are durable, simple to put chickens in and take them out, and impossible for the bird to escape. Their size depends on the size of the birds to be held. They can be made of plastic, wood or any other suitable materials. There are ready-made and on-farm-made crates using locally available resources.
Exercise 10.2
1. You are planning to expand your poultry farm and you need to build new chicken houses. What factors would you consider when choosing the location for the new chicken houses to ensure their safety and productivity?
2. Your chicken houses are experiencing an invasion of vermin and wild birds, causing distress to the chickens and affecting their productivity. What measures would you take to protect the chicken houses from vermin and wild birds?
3. Your chicken houses are experiencing high humidity levels, which are causing discomfort to the chickens and affecting their productivity. How would you correct the situation to maintain optimal humidity levels?
4. If you were designing a chicken house for a breed of your choice, what key features would you include?
5. How would you modify the design of a chicken feeder to minimise feed wastage, and what materials would you use to construct it?
6. If you are in a situation where you can't buy a ready-made drinker, how would you construct a drinker using locally available resources?
7. What factors would you consider when deciding where to place laying nests within a chicken house?
8. How would you design a perch that meets the needs of the chickens and makes efficient use of space within the chicken house?
Feeding of Chickens
The cost of feeds makes up 70 - 80% of the total expenses of raising chickens. Chicken farmers should ensure that it is reasonable to spend those high costs. An animal keeper always maintains feed costs low while maintaining the quantity and quality of products as high as possible. Birds, like other animals, need balanced feed. A balanced feed is one with enough energy, proteins, vitamins and minerals. Birds also need to be provided with enough water all the time. Moreover, chickens need to be fed with fodders. Balanced feeds can, in the end, be packed in different forms and they are fed to chickens in different feeding methods. Balanced ready-made chicken feeds can be bought from authorized distributors or made on the farm under the advice of livestock extension workers or chicken experts.
Forms of Feed
There are various forms of feed which are suitable for feeding chickens depending on the type of birds that are to be fed. These include mashes, pellets, and crumbs.
Mash Feeds
These feeds are made when feed ingredients are grounded into fine particles. This is the commonest form that is fed to all poultry in our country but it is most suitable for layers. Mashes are simple to make and they enhance the activity of the birds; birds take a longer time to feed and reduce boredom. However, selective picking of bigger particles leaves some nutrients not eaten, hence encouraging deficiencies.
Pellet Feeds
These are compounded balanced feeds, which after mixing are compressed into pellets (tablets-like) of different sizes. Birds prefer pellets to mash due to their feeding habit of picking the big particles. Pellet feeds are most suitable for broilers. There is no chance of deficiencies with pellet feeds as every particle picked is balanced. However, feeding pellet feeds may invite undesirable behaviour in birds. This is because birds tend to feed fast and remain idle.
Crumble Feeds
These feeds are produced when pellets are introduced to a cracker/ pellets disintegrator to produce a product between mash and pellets. They have the advantage of pellets because they are mostly fed to younger chicks. It enables the chicks to get all nutrients that are in the ration. It also reduces wastage and increases feed efficiency.
Feeding Methods
Proper feeding of chickens helps them to grow fast. Most feeding methods are more applicable to birds that are kept in confinement than those under free range. The methods suggested for feeding birds include ad libitum, restricted and free choice feeding.
Ad Libitum Feeding
This means providing feed to an animal at all times. Ad libitum feeding is done gradually to allow the animal to consume increasing amounts of feed until it leaves behind at least 15% of the amount that had been offered. Ad libitum feeding is commonly applied in fast-growing birds, for example, broilers.
Restricted Feeding
In this method, the birds are fed a limited quantity of feed per day to meet the optimal body requirement. It is commonly used to feed pullets of all types of production, layers and special-purpose birds, for example, the ones used for research.
Free Choice Feeding
This method involves providing different types of feedstuffs at all times and letting the chickens to choose what they need to eat. Under this method, birds are usually given a choice among three types of feedstuffs. These are (a) an energy source (e.g., maize, rice bran, sorghum or wheat); (b) a protein source (e.g., fish meal or oil seedcake meals); and (c) vitamins and minerals. Through this method of feeding, birds can balance their diets well if each feedstuff is available in the feeder. This method of feeding is commonly applied to game birds and indigenous chickens. With this method, there is no labour required for mixing the feed.
Fresh Fodders for Chickens
Fresh fodders are green plant materials fed to animals such as chickens and others. In chickens, fodders are used as extra food. Fodders are important for chickens because they help them to grow strong and healthy. They also help them to lay eggs that are better with strong yellow yolk. Many types of fodder can be used for chickens. One example is vegetable crop residues. Another example is leguminous tree leaves. These leaves are rich in nutrients and can be a great source of fodder for chickens.
If the natural sources of fodder are not available or not sufficient, we can make them by sprouting or growing them from grains (hydroponic fodder). Sprouting grains into fodder is a great way to stretch your animal feed budget. For example, 50 kg of whole grain can be transformed into as much as 300 kg of fodder simply by sprouting it. Grains, for example, sorghum, finger millet, bulrush millet, wheat, barley, maize, and paddy are used. These grains are grown in a nutrient-rich solution, not soil. The grains are put in a tray or container for about a week to grow. This fodder is full of vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients that chickens need. Chickens will eat not only the sprouts but also the remaining seed residue from the fodder. There is a great benefit of using this kind of fodder because it provides a continuous supply of nutritious feed for the chickens. Growing this fodder can also help you to save money on chicken feed.
Procedures for Making Hydroponic Fodder
(i) Choose the right seeds: Sorghum, finger millet, bulrush millet, wheat and barley are good choices. They are rich in nutrients for chickens.
(ii) Soak the seeds: Put seeds in a container such as a bucket. Fill it with water. Let it soak for 8 hours.
(iii) Drain the water: After 8 hours, drain the water from the container.
(iv) Prepare the nutrient solution: You can buy a ready-made nutrient solution from a gardening store. Alternatively, you can make your own. You will need a water-soluble fertiliser (e.g., 20-20-20 or 24-8-16 NPK), which is available from the market. Make sure you get the ones that have micronutrients included. Add approximately 10 grams of this fertiliser per litre of water and mix them very well. Add approximately 5 grams of magnesium sulphate per litre. Stir the mixture thoroughly to ensure everything is well mixed.
(v) Spread the seeds: Spread the seeds evenly on a growing tray. The tray should have small drain holes. These holes allow excess water to drain away, preventing the roots of the plants from being submerged in water. If the roots are submerged, they can't breathe and the plants can become stressed or even die. Winnowing baskets can be used as growing trays for hydroponic fodder because they are readily available. They can be found in many places and they are a practical choice for this task.
(vi) Water the seeds: Use the nutrient solution to water the seeds 2 - 3 times a day. The seeds should be kept moist all the time but not wet.
(vii) Grow the seeds: Put the tray in a warm place indoors. Wait for about 7 days. The seeds will sprout into the grass.
(viii) Harvest the fodder: After 7 days, the fodder is ready. It should be green and about 15 centimetres tall.
(ix) Feed the chickens: Give the fodder to the chickens. You may spread it on plate feeders.
Note: Always maintain a clean environment when growing hydroponic fodder. This helps to ensure the safety and health of your chickens and the plants they eat.
Exercise 10.3
1. You are a chicken farmer and you need to balance the nutritional needs of your chickens with the cost of feed.
(a) What factors would you consider when choosing one of the following forms of feed between mash, pellet, and crumble feeds?
(b) How would you ensure the feeds are cost-effective without compromising the health and productivity of your chickens?
2. (a) Describe a scenario where you would use each of the three feeding methods (ad libitum, restricted, and free choice)
(b) explain why each method is suitable for that specific situation.
(c) How would these feeding methods affect the behaviour and health of the chickens?
3. Suppose some of your chickens are showing signs of nutrient deficiencies despite being fed a balanced diet. What steps would you take to identify the problem and find a solution? In your response, consider the type of feed, feeding methods, and the possible reasons for nutrient deficiency.
Health Management of Chickens
Proper management of chicken health enables a poultry farmer to maximise production and profits. For this to be achieved, poultry farmers should be able to identify healthy chickens from the sick ones. This will enable a farmer to notice unhealthy chickens and find out the causes and solutions. The following sections elaborate the meaning of animal health, conditions of healthy and unhealthy chickens including poultry vices, causes of poor or ill health in chickens, and general management of chicken health.
The Meaning of Animal Health
Health is a state of being in a good condition where all the body organs and systems are normal and functioning properly. It is a freedom from diseases and abnormalities. Any change from a normal state or any process which prevents an animal's normal function is referred to as ill health.
Healthy and Unhealthy Conditions in Chickens
Poultry farmers must observe birds closely to keep individual animals and flocks or herds in good health and productive. When the animal is ill or falls sick, it shows some signs or behavioural deviation from the normal healthy animals. The following are some signs and behaviours of a healthy chicken which a poultry farmer should be able to identify.
Eyes: Eyes are bright (clear and shiny), clearly open, and free of discharge or swelling.
Nostrils: Both nostrils are clear and open, with no discharge from the nostrils.
Mouth: Breathe with the mouth closed, except in very hot conditions.
Wings: The wings are carried close to the body in most breeds of chickens. Few breeds have wings that point downward; therefore, you need to study breed characteristics to see what is normal for your breed. The wings should not bend, hang down heavily or look twisted.
Feathers: Feathers are evenly distributed with no missing large patches. A healthy bird has its feathers smoothed down when it is active. Hens kept with a cock often have bare patches on the back and the base of the neck near the back. These patches are caused by scratching during mating and this is normal. However, there are some differences with some kinds of chickens which have twisted or curled feathers, for example, Frizzle and Polish chickens.
Skin: The skin appears smooth and intact with no open sores or swelling.
Legs, feet and toes: A healthy chicken's legs look smooth. The scales are visible but sit relatively flat, like skin. The three front toes of chicken point straight ahead, and the feet should not turn outward. Feet should not be webbed (webbing is a skin connecting the toes), but rarely webbed feet show up as a genetic defect.
Cloaca: This is the opening from which the chicken passes out both faeces and eggs. A healthy cloaca is clean, pinkish-red, moist and clean with no faeces stuck on it and no wounds or sores around it. The vent should not protrude, or be bloody or dry.
Droppings or faeces: Healthy chicken excretes tightly packed droppings with white caps on them.
Mental state: A healthy chicken is quick to see and act, and will stay away from people it doesn't know if it is in a place with light. A chicken that is not moving or resisting to be held is likely to be sick. When it is dark, chickens are calm and quiet, and this is normal.
Activity level: A healthy chicken is usually active during the day. Some chickens are more easily scared and jumpy while others are relaxed but always active. In very hot weather, all chickens are less active. However, differences exist between breeds.
Normal growth or egg production: Healthy chickens should grow to weights that are right for their age. If chickens are for eggs, they should lay as expected.
Other normal behaviours: Healthy chickens should show normal eating, drinking, walking and perching behaviour.
Note: Any unusual signs or behaviours in chickens indicate that they are not healthy.
Activity 10.4
1. Pay a visit to the school poultry unit and any other nearby chicken farm then carefully observe the behaviours and signs of chickens.
2. Record your findings by considering signs or behaviours you have learnt plus others you have made.
3. Repeat tasks number 1 and 2 on different days and times of the day, and note your findings.
4. Outline the lessons learnt from this activity.
Causes of Poor Health in Chickens
Chickens can get sick for many reasons. Some of these include:
Poor feeding: If chickens don't get enough good feed, they can get nutritional problems, for example, pecking each other or eating their eggs.
Poor housing, hygiene and biosecurity: If chickens live in dirty or unsafe places, they can get sick. Biosecurity is about keeping people, animals, and plants safe from harmful germs and diseases. If biosecurity is poor, germs can spread and make the chickens sick.
Injuries from poor handling: If chickens are treated badly or their houses are not well made, they can get hurt. This can cause problems like broken bones or wounds.
Parasite infestation: Parasites are organisms that live in or outside another organism, called a host, and can harm it. They can be external or internal. External parasites, such as fleas, lice and mites, live on the chicken's body. Internal parasites, for example, roundworms, live inside the chicken's body. Parasites can cause problems in chickens. They can compete with the chickens for food, make them lose their appetite, and cause them to get sick.
Micro-organisms or pathogens: These are tiny organisms that can cause diseases. Diseases happen when these harmful micro-organisms or pathogens enter a chicken's body. Examples of these pathogens are bacteria and viruses. However, some diseases are caused by not getting enough nutrients from food, for example, vitamins. Diseases often spread from one chicken to another, usually more so than from mother to chick. This can happen through:
(a) Direct contact with an infected chicken;
(b) Touching a litter that has been contaminated;
(c) Breathing in tiny disease-carrying particles in the air; and
(d) Eating feed or drinking water that has been in contact with infected animals or disease carriers such as insects and wild birds.
End of Chapter Ten
Write a summary of what you have learnt from this chapter in your portfolio.
Chapter Eleven: Introduction to Rabbit Production
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about the meaning and importance of rabbit production. You will also learn about rabbit farming systems and factors to consider in selecting a rabbit production system. The competencies developed from this chapter will enable you to explore and appreciate a wide range of entrepreneurial opportunities existing in the rabbit sector. You will also be able to make informed decisions in adapting a rabbit rearing system which suits your needs.
Think
"Start small, grow steadily, and let your rabbit enterprise multiply like rabbits!"
The Meaning and Importance of Rabbit Production
Rabbit production, also known as cuniculture, is the practice of breeding and raising domestic rabbits for various purposes. Rabbits are versatile animals that can be raised for meat, fur, wool, as laboratory animals, or as pets. Rabbit farming has gained popularity in recent years due to its numerous advantages over other livestock enterprises.
Activity 11.1
1. Visit a local rabbit farm or research online about rabbit farming practices in your area.
2. Identify at least three different rabbit breeds and note their characteristics.
3. List the products that can be obtained from rabbits and their potential markets.
4. Write a brief report on your findings and share it with your classmates.
Importance of Rabbit Production
Rabbit production offers several significant benefits:
1. Source of High-Quality Protein
Rabbit meat is a excellent source of high-quality protein, with low fat and cholesterol content. It contains all essential amino acids required by the human body, making it a healthy alternative to other meat sources.
2. Rapid Reproduction and Growth
Rabbits have a short gestation period (about 31 days) and can produce multiple litters per year. They reach market weight quickly (usually within 3-4 months), allowing for rapid turnover and quick returns on investment.
3. Efficient Feed Conversion
Rabbits are highly efficient at converting feed into body weight. They require less feed per kilogram of weight gain compared to other livestock animals, making them cost-effective to raise.
4. Small Space Requirements
Rabbit farming requires relatively small space compared to other livestock enterprises. This makes it suitable for urban and peri-urban areas where land is limited.
5. Multiple Products
Besides meat, rabbits provide other valuable products:
- Fur: Rabbit fur is used in the textile industry for clothing and accessories.
- Manure: Rabbit manure is an excellent organic fertilizer rich in nutrients.
- Wool: Certain breeds like Angora rabbits produce high-quality wool.
- Laboratory animals: Rabbits are used in medical and cosmetic research.
6. Low Startup Costs
Compared to other livestock enterprises, rabbit farming requires relatively low initial investment, making it accessible to small-scale farmers and youth entrepreneurs.
7. Employment Opportunities
Rabbit farming creates employment opportunities along the value chain, from production to processing and marketing.
Rabbit Breeds and Their Characteristics
There are numerous rabbit breeds, each with specific characteristics suited for different production purposes. Understanding breed characteristics is essential for selecting the right breed for your farming objectives.
Meat Breeds
These breeds are specifically developed for meat production and typically have fast growth rates and good feed conversion efficiency.
New Zealand White
One of the most popular meat breeds worldwide. Characteristics include:
- Medium to large size (4-5 kg adult weight)
- Pure white fur with pink eyes
- Good mothering ability
- Fast growth rate
- Excellent meat-to-bone ratio
California
Known for its distinctive markings and excellent meat qualities:
- White body with black points on nose, ears, feet, and tail
- Medium size (3.5-4.5 kg adult weight)
- Good growth rate
- High dressing percentage
Flemish Giant
One of the largest rabbit breeds:
- Very large size (6-10 kg adult weight)
- Available in various colors
- Slower growth rate but produces large quantity of meat
- Gentle temperament
Fur and Wool Breeds
These breeds are valued for their pelts or wool production.
Rex
Known for its plush, velvety fur:
- Medium size (3-4 kg adult weight)
- Short, dense fur with unique texture
- Available in various colors
- Fur is highly valued in the garment industry
Angora
Famous for its long, silky wool:
- Medium size (2.5-4 kg adult weight)
- Produces high-quality wool that can be harvested every 3-4 months
- Requires regular grooming to prevent matting
- Several varieties: English, French, German, and Giant Angora
Dual-Purpose Breeds
These breeds are suitable for both meat and fur production.
Chinchilla
Valued for both meat and distinctive fur:
- Medium size (3-4.5 kg adult weight)
- Beautiful gray fur resembling the chinchilla rodent
- Good meat production qualities
- Hardy and adaptable to various conditions
Silver Fox
Known for its unique silvered fur and good meat qualities:
- Medium to large size (4-5 kg adult weight)
- Fur has silver-tipped hairs over a dark base
- Good mothering ability
- Calm temperament
| Breed | Primary Use | Adult Weight (kg) | Litter Size | Special Characteristics |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| New Zealand White | Meat | 4-5 | 8-10 | Fast growth, good feed conversion |
| California | Meat | 3.5-4.5 | 8-10 | Excellent meat-to-bone ratio |
| Flemish Giant | Meat | 6-10 | 6-8 | Large size, gentle temperament |
| Rex | Fur | 3-4 | 6-8 | Plush, velvety fur |
| Angora | Wool | 2.5-4 | 4-6 | Long, silky wool requiring regular shearing |
| Chinchilla | Dual-purpose | 3-4.5 | 6-8 | Beautiful gray fur, good meat production |
Activity 11.2
1. Research three rabbit breeds that would be suitable for farming in your local area.
2. Create a comparison chart showing the advantages and disadvantages of each breed.
3. Based on your research, which breed would you recommend for a beginner rabbit farmer in your community? Justify your choice.
4. Present your findings to the class.
Rabbit Housing Systems
Proper housing is essential for successful rabbit production. The housing system should provide protection from predators, extreme weather conditions, and diseases while ensuring the rabbits' welfare.
1. Cage System
The cage system is the most common method of housing rabbits, especially in commercial operations. Cages can be made from various materials including wire mesh, wood, or a combination of both.
Advantages of Cage System:
- Easy to clean and maintain
- Good disease control
- Efficient use of space
- Easy monitoring of individual animals
- Prevents soil-borne diseases
Disadvantages of Cage System:
- Higher initial investment
- Limited movement for rabbits
- Requires proper ventilation management
2. Hutch System
Hutches are enclosed structures typically made of wood with wire mesh fronts. They can be placed indoors or outdoors and are often elevated from the ground.
Advantages of Hutch System:
- Provides protection from weather and predators
- Suitable for small-scale production
- Can be made from locally available materials
- Allows for more natural behavior than cages
Disadvantages of Hutch System:
- Requires more space than cages
- Can be difficult to clean thoroughly
- Wood may absorb urine and harbor pathogens
3. Colony System
In the colony system, multiple rabbits are housed together in a larger enclosed area such as a shed or fenced yard.
Advantages of Colony System:
- Allows for natural social behavior
- Lower construction costs per animal
- Rabbits get more exercise
Disadvantages of Colony System:
- Difficult to monitor individual animals
- Higher risk of disease transmission
- Increased fighting and injuries
- Difficulty in controlling breeding
Rabbit Nutrition and Feeding
Proper nutrition is essential for healthy rabbit growth, reproduction, and production. Rabbits have unique digestive systems that require specific feeding strategies.
Digestive System of Rabbits
Rabbits are herbivores with a specialized digestive system:
- They practice cecotrophy - consuming special soft feces (cecotropes) directly from the anus to maximize nutrient absorption
- They have a large cecum where microbial fermentation of fibrous materials occurs
- They require high-fiber diets to maintain digestive health
Feed Requirements
A balanced rabbit diet should contain:
1. Forages and Roughages
These should form the bulk of a rabbit's diet:
- Grasses (Napier grass, Rhodes grass, etc.)
- Legumes (alfalfa, clover, etc.)
- Vegetable leaves and garden waste
- Tree leaves (moringa, leucaena, etc.)
2. Concentrates
These provide additional energy and protein:
- Commercial rabbit pellets
- Grains (maize, wheat, barley)
- Oilseed cakes (sunflower, cottonseed)
- Bran (wheat bran, rice bran)
3. Supplements
These provide essential vitamins and minerals:
- Mineral blocks or licks
- Salt
- Vitamin supplements when necessary
| Category | Body Weight (kg) | Concentrates (g) | Forage (g) | Water (ml) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Growing rabbit | 1-2 | 50-80 | 200-300 | 300-500 |
| Adult maintenance | 3-4 | 100-120 | 300-400 | 500-800 |
| Pregnant doe | 3-4 | 150-180 | 400-500 | 800-1000 |
| Lactating doe | 3-4 | 200-250 | 500-600 | 1000-1500 |
| Breeding buck | 3-4 | 120-150 | 300-400 | 500-800 |
Important: Fresh, clean water should be available to rabbits at all times. Water requirements increase during hot weather, lactation, and when feeding dry concentrates.
Rabbit Health Management
Preventive health care is crucial in rabbit production. Common health issues in rabbits include respiratory diseases, digestive disorders, parasitic infections, and injuries.
Preventive Health Measures
1. Biosecurity
- Restrict access to the rabbitry
- Quarantine new animals for 2-3 weeks before introducing them to the herd
- Practice all-in-all-out management where possible
- Control rodents and insects that can transmit diseases
2. Vaccination
Depending on the region, rabbits may require vaccination against:
- Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease (RHD)
- Myxomatosis
3. Regular Health Checks
Monitor rabbits daily for signs of illness:
- Changes in appetite or water consumption
- Abnormal feces (diarrhea, small dry pellets)
- Respiratory problems (sneezing, nasal discharge)
- Changes in behavior (lethargy, aggression)
- Physical injuries or abnormalities
Common Rabbit Diseases and Treatment
| Disease | Symptoms | Prevention | Treatment |
|---|---|---|---|
| Snuffles (Pasteurellosis) | Sneezing, nasal discharge, matted front paws | Good ventilation, reduce stress, proper sanitation | Antibiotics as prescribed by a veterinarian |
| Coccidiosis | Diarrhea, weight loss, pot-bellied appearance | Clean housing, avoid damp conditions, coccidiostats in feed | Anticoccidial drugs, supportive care |
| Enteritis | Diarrhea, loss of appetite, dehydration | Gradual feed changes, high-fiber diet, clean water | Fluid therapy, antibiotics if bacterial cause |
| Mange | Hair loss, crusty skin, itching | Good sanitation, isolate affected animals | Ivermectin or other acaricides as prescribed |
| Heat Stress | Rapid breathing, lethargy, stretched out posture | Proper ventilation, shade, adequate water | Move to cooler area, provide water, wet ears |
Breeding and Reproduction Management
Understanding rabbit reproduction is essential for successful breeding programs.
Reproductive Characteristics
- Puberty: 4-8 months depending on breed
- Estrous cycle: Rabbits are induced ovulators (ovulate after mating)
- Gestation period: 28-32 days (average 31 days)
- Litter size: 4-12 kits depending on breed and age of doe
- Weaning age: 4-8 weeks
- Breeding lifespan: 1-3 years for does, 2-4 years for bucks
Breeding Management
1. Selecting Breeding Stock
- Choose healthy, vigorous animals with good conformation
- Select for desired production traits (growth rate, litter size, etc.)
- Avoid animals with hereditary defects or poor performance
- Maintain proper buck-to-doe ratio (usually 1:10 for natural mating)
2. Mating
- Always take the doe to the buck's cage for mating
- Observe for successful mating (buck falls off after ejaculation)
- Return the doe to her cage immediately after mating
- Record mating dates for accurate kindling (birthing) predictions
3. Pregnancy and Kindling
- Provide a nest box 28 days after mating
- Does will pull fur from their belly to line the nest before kindling
- Minimize disturbances around kindling time
- Check nest box after kindling to ensure all kits are alive and remove any dead ones
Marketing and Economics of Rabbit Production
Successful rabbit farming requires not only good production practices but also effective marketing strategies.
Potential Markets
- Meat: Restaurants, hotels, supermarkets, individual consumers
- Breeding stock: Other farmers, pet owners
- Manure: Gardeners, farmers, nurseries
- Fur/Wool: Textile industry, crafters
Economic Considerations
Startup Costs
- Housing and equipment
- Initial breeding stock
- Feed and supplements
- Veterinary supplies
Operating Costs
- Feed (largest recurring expense)
- Labor
- Veterinary care
- Utilities (water, electricity)
- Marketing and transportation
Revenue Streams
- Sale of live animals for meat or breeding
- Sale of processed rabbit meat
- Sale of manure
- Sale of pelts or wool (for specific breeds)
Exercise 11.1
1. Calculate the potential profitability of a small rabbit enterprise with 10 breeding does and 2 bucks.
2. Create a business plan for a rabbit farming venture in your area, considering:
- Startup costs
- Expected production levels
- Marketing strategy
- Potential challenges and solutions
3. Compare rabbit farming with another small livestock enterprise (such as poultry or goat farming) in terms of:
- Initial investment required
- Space requirements
- Feed costs
- Market potential
- Labor requirements
Activity 11.3: Project Work
Establish a small rabbit production unit at your school or home:
1. Design and construct appropriate housing for 2-4 rabbits
2. Source healthy breeding stock from a reputable farmer
3. Develop a feeding program using locally available feed resources
4. Maintain records of:
- Feed consumption
- Growth rates
- Breeding performance
- Health issues and treatments
- Production costs and revenues
5. Prepare a final report on your rabbit production project, including challenges faced and lessons learned.
Chapter Summary
Rabbit production offers a viable enterprise for small-scale farmers with limited resources. With proper management of breeding, feeding, housing, and health, rabbit farming can provide a sustainable source of income and high-quality protein. The rapid reproduction rate and efficient feed conversion of rabbits make them an excellent choice for both commercial production and subsistence farming.
Write a summary of what you have learnt from this chapter in your portfolio.
Chapter Twelve: Introduction to Beekeeping
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about the meaning and importance of beekeeping (apiculture). You will also learn about bee biology, beekeeping equipment, hive management, and honey harvesting techniques. The competencies developed from this chapter will enable you to explore and appreciate a wide range of entrepreneurial opportunities existing in the beekeeping sector. You will also be able to make informed decisions in establishing and managing a beekeeping enterprise.
Think
"Small insects, big impact - bees are nature's tiny workers that sweeten our lives and sustain our ecosystems."
The Meaning and Importance of Beekeeping
Beekeeping, also known as apiculture, is the practice of maintaining honey bee colonies in man-made hives. This agricultural practice dates back thousands of years and has evolved into a sophisticated enterprise that provides multiple benefits to humans and the environment.
Activity 12.1
1. Visit a local beekeeper or research online about beekeeping practices in your area.
2. Identify at least three different bee species and note their characteristics.
3. List the products that can be obtained from bees and their potential uses.
4. Write a brief report on your findings and share it with your classmates.
Importance of Beekeeping
Beekeeping offers several significant benefits to individuals, communities, and the environment:
1. Pollination Services
Bees are essential pollinators for many crops and wild plants. Their pollination services:
- Increase crop yields and quality
- Support biodiversity in natural ecosystems
- Contribute to food security
- Enhance genetic diversity in plants
2. Production of Honey and Other Bee Products
Bees produce several valuable products:
- Honey: A natural sweetener with medicinal properties
- Beeswax: Used in cosmetics, candles, and polish
- Pollen: A nutritious food supplement
- Propolis: A resinous substance with antimicrobial properties
- Royal jelly: A nutrient-rich secretion used in health products
- Bee venom: Used in apitherapy for various ailments
3. Income Generation
Beekeeping provides multiple income streams:
- Sale of honey and other bee products
- Sale of live bees and queens
- Rental of bee colonies for pollination services
- Value-added products (candles, cosmetics, etc.)
4. Environmental Conservation
Beekeeping promotes environmental awareness and conservation:
- Encourages protection of flowering plants and trees
- Raises awareness about pesticide use and its impact on pollinators
- Supports sustainable land management practices
5. Low Input Requirements
Compared to other agricultural enterprises, beekeeping:
- Requires relatively low startup costs
- Needs minimal land (bees forage over wide areas)
- Can be practiced by people of different ages and physical abilities
- Can be combined with other farming activities
Bee Biology and Behavior
Understanding bee biology is essential for successful beekeeping. Honey bees are social insects that live in highly organized colonies.
Types of Bees in a Colony
A honey bee colony consists of three types of bees:
Queen Bee
The queen is the only reproductive female in the colony:
- Larger than worker bees with a longer abdomen
- Can live for 2-5 years
- Lays up to 2,000 eggs per day during peak season
- Produces pheromones that regulate colony behavior
- Mates only once in her lifetime with multiple drones
Worker Bees
Worker bees are infertile females that perform all colony tasks:
- Smallest bees in the colony
- Live for about 6 weeks during active season
- Perform different roles based on age:
- Days 1-3: Clean cells and maintain hive temperature
- Days 3-10: Feed larvae (nurse bees)
- Days 10-20: Produce wax, build comb, guard hive entrance
- Days 20+: Forage for nectar, pollen, water, and propolis
- Constitute the majority of the colony population (20,000-60,000 bees)
Drone Bees
Drones are male bees whose primary purpose is to mate with virgin queens:
- Larger than worker bees with big eyes and stout bodies
- Do not have stingers
- Do not collect food or perform hive tasks
- Die after mating
- Are expelled from the hive before winter to conserve resources
Bee Communication
Honey bees have sophisticated communication systems:
1. Waggle Dance
Forager bees perform a "waggle dance" to communicate the location of food sources:
- The angle of the dance indicates direction relative to the sun
- The duration of the waggle run indicates distance
- The vigor of the dance indicates the quality of the food source
2. Pheromones
Bees use chemical signals (pheromones) for various communications:
- Queen mandibular pheromone: Attracts workers, inhibits queen cell construction
- Alarm pheromone: Released when bees sting, alerts other bees to danger
- Nasonov pheromone: Orients bees to the hive entrance
Beekeeping Equipment
Proper equipment is essential for successful and safe beekeeping. The basic equipment includes:
1. Bee Hive
The hive is the man-made structure where bees live and store honey. Common hive types include:
Langstroth Hive
The most widely used hive design worldwide:
- Consists of rectangular boxes with removable frames
- Allows for easy inspection and honey extraction
- Standardized dimensions make equipment interchangeable
- Can be expanded by adding more boxes as the colony grows
Top-Bar Hive
A simpler, more traditional hive design:
- Consists of a single box with bars across the top
- Bees build comb downward from the bars
- Lower cost and easier to construct
- More suitable for small-scale beekeeping
Traditional Hives
Various traditional hive designs used in different cultures:
- Log hives, clay pots, basket hives
- Lower honey yields but culturally significant
- Often destructive during honey harvesting
2. Protective Clothing
Essential for safe beekeeping operations:
- Bee suit: Full-body protective clothing
- Veil: Protects the face and neck from stings
- Gloves: Protect hands while allowing dexterity
- Boots: Closed shoes or boots to protect feet
3. Beekeeping Tools
Various tools facilitate hive management:
- Smoker: Produces smoke that calms bees and masks alarm pheromones
- Hive tool: A versatile prying tool for opening hives and separating frames
- Bee brush: Gently removes bees from frames
- Queen excluder: Prevents the queen from laying eggs in honey supers
- Uncapping knife: Removes wax cappings from honeycomb before extraction
- Honey extractor: Spins honey out of frames using centrifugal force
Establishing an Apiary
Proper apiary establishment is crucial for successful beekeeping. Consider these factors when setting up your apiary:
Site Selection
Choose a location that meets these criteria:
- Water source: Bees need access to clean water
- Nectar and pollen sources: Diverse flowering plants within 3-5 km radius
- Shelter: Protection from strong winds
- Sun exposure: Morning sun helps bees start foraging early
- Drainage: Well-drained area to prevent dampness
- Safety: Away from public areas to minimize human-bee conflicts
- Accessibility: Easy access for management and honey harvesting
Acquiring Bees
There are several ways to start a bee colony:
1. Package Bees
Bees sold in screened boxes with a queen:
- Available from commercial bee suppliers
- Convenient way to start new colonies
- Typically includes 1-1.5 kg of bees with a mated queen
2. Nucleus Colony (Nuc)
A small, established colony with frames of brood, honey, and pollen:
- Faster establishment than package bees
- Includes bees at all stages of development
- Higher success rate for new beekeepers
3. Swarm Capture
Collecting wild swarms:
- Low-cost method of acquiring bees
- Requires knowledge of swarm behavior and capture techniques
- Bees may be more defensive than selected breeds
4. Colony Division
Splitting an existing colony to create a new one:
- Requires an established, strong colony
- Can be done by beekeepers with experience
- Helps prevent swarming in the original colony
Activity 12.2
1. Design a plan for establishing a small apiary at your school or home.
2. Identify potential locations and evaluate them based on the criteria for good apiary sites.
3. Research the costs of different beekeeping equipment and create a budget for starting a small beekeeping enterprise.
4. Identify local sources for acquiring bees and compare their advantages and disadvantages.
Hive Management
Regular hive management is essential for maintaining healthy, productive colonies. Management practices vary by season.
Spring Management
Spring is a period of rapid colony growth:
- Conduct regular inspections to monitor colony strength
- Ensure adequate space to prevent swarming
- Provide supplemental feeding if natural forage is limited
- Check for signs of disease and pests
- Add honey supers when nectar flow begins
Summer Management
Summer is the main honey production season:
- Monitor honey stores and add supers as needed
- Ensure adequate ventilation to prevent overheating
- Provide water sources near the apiary
- Control pests like varroa mites and wax moths
- Harvest honey when frames are capped
Autumn Management
Preparation for winter is crucial in autumn:
- Ensure colonies have adequate honey stores for winter (15-20 kg)
- Treat for varroa mites if necessary
- Reduce hive entrances to prevent robbing and improve defense
- Combine weak colonies to improve winter survival chances
- Provide windbreaks if needed
Winter Management
Minimal intervention during winter:
- Avoid opening hives in cold weather
- Check periodically for adequate food stores
- Provide emergency feeding if necessary
- Protect hives from extreme weather conditions
Bee Products and Their Harvesting
Bees produce several valuable products that can be harvested and processed.
Honey
Honey is the primary product of beekeeping:
Harvesting Honey
Follow these steps for proper honey harvesting:
- Use a bee brush or blower to remove bees from frames
- Select only frames that are at least 80% capped
- Transport frames to a bee-proof processing area
- Uncap cells using an uncapping knife or fork
- Extract honey using a honey extractor
- Strain honey to remove wax particles and debris
- Allow honey to settle before bottling
- Store in airtight containers in a cool, dark place
Types of Honey
- Blossom honey: From nectar of flowers
- Honeydew honey: From secretions of insects feeding on plant sap
- Monofloral honey: Predominantly from one plant species
- Multifloral honey: From multiple plant species
- Comb honey: Honey sold in the wax comb
- Creamed honey: Processed to control crystallization
Beeswax
Beeswax is produced by worker bees to build honeycomb:
Processing Beeswax
- Collect cappings and old comb
- Melt in a solar wax melter or double boiler
- Strain through cheesecloth to remove impurities
- Pour into molds to form blocks or cakes
- Store in a cool, dry place
Uses of Beeswax
- Candles
- Cosmetics (lip balm, lotions)
- Wood and leather polish
- Foundation sheets for beehives
- Food coating and packaging
| Product | Source | Primary Uses | Harvesting Method |
|---|---|---|---|
| Honey | Nectar processed by bees | Food, medicine, sweetener | Extraction from comb |
| Beeswax | Secreted by worker bees | Candles, cosmetics, polish | Melting and purifying old comb |
| Pollen | Collected from flowers | Nutritional supplement | Pollen traps at hive entrance |
| Propolis | Plant resins collected by bees | Medicine, wood varnish | Scraping from hive surfaces |
| Royal Jelly | Secreted by nurse bees | Health supplements, cosmetics | Harvesting from queen cells |
| Bee Venom | Venom sac of worker bees | Apitherapy, medicine | Electrical stimulation collection |
Bee Health and Pest Management
Maintaining healthy colonies is essential for successful beekeeping. Bees face various pests and diseases that require management.
Common Bee Pests and Diseases
| Problem | Symptoms | Prevention | Treatment |
|---|---|---|---|
| Varroa Mites | Deformed wings, weakened bees, colony collapse | Regular monitoring, drone brood removal | Organic acids, essential oils, synthetic miticides |
| American Foulbrood | Sunken, perforated cappings, foul odor, ropey test | Strong colonies, hygienic bee breeds, equipment sterilization | Antibiotics (where permitted), burning infected colonies |
| Nosema | Dysentery, weak bees, reduced population | Good ventilation, adequate food stores | Fumagillin treatment, requeening |
| Wax Moths | Webbing in comb, tunnel damage, weakened colonies | Strong colonies, proper storage of comb | Freezing combs, biological control (Bacillus thuringiensis) |
| Small Hive Beetle | Slime on comb, beetles in hive, absconding | Strong colonies, good hive maintenance | Traps, soil treatment around hives |
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in Beekeeping
IPM approaches combine multiple strategies for sustainable pest control:
- Cultural controls: Strong colonies, hygienic bee breeds, proper hive placement
- Mechanical controls: Screened bottom boards, drone brood removal, beetle traps
- Biological controls: Beneficial fungi, resistant bee breeds
- Chemical controls: As a last resort, using approved treatments judiciously
Important: Always follow label instructions when using any chemical treatments in beehives. Some treatments can contaminate honey and other bee products if used improperly.
Marketing Bee Products
Successful beekeeping requires effective marketing strategies for bee products.
Potential Markets
- Local markets: Farmers markets, roadside stands
- Retail outlets: Grocery stores, health food stores
- Direct sales: Online sales, farm gate sales
- Specialty markets: Gourmet food stores, restaurants
- Industrial buyers: Food processors, cosmetic manufacturers
- Export markets: International honey buyers
Value-Added Products
Increasing profitability through value addition:
- Flavored honeys (with herbs, spices, or fruits)
- Beeswax candles and cosmetics
- Gift baskets with multiple bee products
- Pollination services for crop farmers
- Bee-related educational products and experiences
Quality Considerations
Maintaining high quality is essential for market success:
- Proper harvesting and processing techniques
- Clean, attractive packaging
- Accurate labeling with product information
- Compliance with food safety regulations
- Consistent product quality
Exercise 12.1
1. Calculate the potential profitability of a small beekeeping enterprise with 10 hives.
2. Create a business plan for a beekeeping venture in your area, considering:
- Startup costs for equipment and bees
- Expected honey production per hive
- Marketing strategy for your products
- Potential challenges and solutions
3. Compare traditional beekeeping with modern beekeeping methods in terms of:
- Initial investment required
- Honey yields
- Colony management
- Environmental impact
Activity 12.3: Project Work
Establish a small beekeeping project at your school or home:
1. Construct or acquire a beehive and necessary equipment
2. Install a bee colony using one of the methods discussed
3. Develop a seasonal management calendar for your hive
4. Maintain records of:
- Colony development and behavior
- Honey production
- Pest and disease issues
- Management activities and costs
5. Harvest and process honey and other bee products
6. Prepare a final report on your beekeeping project, including challenges faced and lessons learned.
Chapter Summary
Beekeeping is a rewarding agricultural enterprise that provides multiple benefits including honey production, crop pollination, and income generation. With proper understanding of bee biology, appropriate equipment, and good management practices, beekeeping can be a sustainable and profitable venture. The importance of bees in ecosystem health and food production makes beekeeping not just an economic activity but also an environmental stewardship practice.
Write a summary of what you have learnt from this chapter in your portfolio.
Chapter Twelve: Introduction to Beekeeping
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about the meaning and importance of beekeeping (apiculture). You will also learn about bee biology, beekeeping equipment, hive management, and honey harvesting techniques. The competencies developed from this chapter will enable you to explore and appreciate a wide range of entrepreneurial opportunities existing in the beekeeping sector. You will also be able to make informed decisions in establishing and managing a beekeeping enterprise.
Think
"Small insects, big impact - bees are nature's tiny workers that sweeten our lives and sustain our ecosystems."
The Meaning and Importance of Beekeeping
Beekeeping, also known as apiculture, is the practice of maintaining honey bee colonies in man-made hives. This agricultural practice dates back thousands of years and has evolved into a sophisticated enterprise that provides multiple benefits to humans and the environment.
Activity 12.1
1. Visit a local beekeeper or research online about beekeeping practices in your area.
2. Identify at least three different bee species and note their characteristics.
3. List the products that can be obtained from bees and their potential uses.
4. Write a brief report on your findings and share it with your classmates.
Importance of Beekeeping
Beekeeping offers several significant benefits to individuals, communities, and the environment:
1. Pollination Services
Bees are essential pollinators for many crops and wild plants. Their pollination services:
- Increase crop yields and quality
- Support biodiversity in natural ecosystems
- Contribute to food security
- Enhance genetic diversity in plants
2. Production of Honey and Other Bee Products
Bees produce several valuable products:
- Honey: A natural sweetener with medicinal properties
- Beeswax: Used in cosmetics, candles, and polish
- Pollen: A nutritious food supplement
- Propolis: A resinous substance with antimicrobial properties
- Royal jelly: A nutrient-rich secretion used in health products
- Bee venom: Used in apitherapy for various ailments
3. Income Generation
Beekeeping provides multiple income streams:
- Sale of honey and other bee products
- Sale of live bees and queens
- Rental of bee colonies for pollination services
- Value-added products (candles, cosmetics, etc.)
4. Environmental Conservation
Beekeeping promotes environmental awareness and conservation:
- Encourages protection of flowering plants and trees
- Raises awareness about pesticide use and its impact on pollinators
- Supports sustainable land management practices
5. Low Input Requirements
Compared to other agricultural enterprises, beekeeping:
- Requires relatively low startup costs
- Needs minimal land (bees forage over wide areas)
- Can be practiced by people of different ages and physical abilities
- Can be combined with other farming activities
Bee Biology and Behavior
Understanding bee biology is essential for successful beekeeping. Honey bees are social insects that live in highly organized colonies.
Types of Bees in a Colony
A honey bee colony consists of three types of bees:
Queen Bee
The queen is the only reproductive female in the colony:
- Larger than worker bees with a longer abdomen
- Can live for 2-5 years
- Lays up to 2,000 eggs per day during peak season
- Produces pheromones that regulate colony behavior
- Mates only once in her lifetime with multiple drones
Worker Bees
Worker bees are infertile females that perform all colony tasks:
- Smallest bees in the colony
- Live for about 6 weeks during active season
- Perform different roles based on age:
- Days 1-3: Clean cells and maintain hive temperature
- Days 3-10: Feed larvae (nurse bees)
- Days 10-20: Produce wax, build comb, guard hive entrance
- Days 20+: Forage for nectar, pollen, water, and propolis
- Constitute the majority of the colony population (20,000-60,000 bees)
Drone Bees
Drones are male bees whose primary purpose is to mate with virgin queens:
- Larger than worker bees with big eyes and stout bodies
- Do not have stingers
- Do not collect food or perform hive tasks
- Die after mating
- Are expelled from the hive before winter to conserve resources
Bee Communication
Honey bees have sophisticated communication systems:
1. Waggle Dance
Forager bees perform a "waggle dance" to communicate the location of food sources:
- The angle of the dance indicates direction relative to the sun
- The duration of the waggle run indicates distance
- The vigor of the dance indicates the quality of the food source
2. Pheromones
Bees use chemical signals (pheromones) for various communications:
- Queen mandibular pheromone: Attracts workers, inhibits queen cell construction
- Alarm pheromone: Released when bees sting, alerts other bees to danger
- Nasonov pheromone: Orients bees to the hive entrance
Beekeeping Equipment
Proper equipment is essential for successful and safe beekeeping. The basic equipment includes:
1. Bee Hive
The hive is the man-made structure where bees live and store honey. Common hive types include:
Langstroth Hive
The most widely used hive design worldwide:
- Consists of rectangular boxes with removable frames
- Allows for easy inspection and honey extraction
- Standardized dimensions make equipment interchangeable
- Can be expanded by adding more boxes as the colony grows
Top-Bar Hive
A simpler, more traditional hive design:
- Consists of a single box with bars across the top
- Bees build comb downward from the bars
- Lower cost and easier to construct
- More suitable for small-scale beekeeping
Traditional Hives
Various traditional hive designs used in different cultures:
- Log hives, clay pots, basket hives
- Lower honey yields but culturally significant
- Often destructive during honey harvesting
2. Protective Clothing
Essential for safe beekeeping operations:
- Bee suit: Full-body protective clothing
- Veil: Protects the face and neck from stings
- Gloves: Protect hands while allowing dexterity
- Boots: Closed shoes or boots to protect feet
3. Beekeeping Tools
Various tools facilitate hive management:
- Smoker: Produces smoke that calms bees and masks alarm pheromones
- Hive tool: A versatile prying tool for opening hives and separating frames
- Bee brush: Gently removes bees from frames
- Queen excluder: Prevents the queen from laying eggs in honey supers
- Uncapping knife: Removes wax cappings from honeycomb before extraction
- Honey extractor: Spins honey out of frames using centrifugal force
Establishing an Apiary
Proper apiary establishment is crucial for successful beekeeping. Consider these factors when setting up your apiary:
Site Selection
Choose a location that meets these criteria:
- Water source: Bees need access to clean water
- Nectar and pollen sources: Diverse flowering plants within 3-5 km radius
- Shelter: Protection from strong winds
- Sun exposure: Morning sun helps bees start foraging early
- Drainage: Well-drained area to prevent dampness
- Safety: Away from public areas to minimize human-bee conflicts
- Accessibility: Easy access for management and honey harvesting
Acquiring Bees
There are several ways to start a bee colony:
1. Package Bees
Bees sold in screened boxes with a queen:
- Available from commercial bee suppliers
- Convenient way to start new colonies
- Typically includes 1-1.5 kg of bees with a mated queen
2. Nucleus Colony (Nuc)
A small, established colony with frames of brood, honey, and pollen:
- Faster establishment than package bees
- Includes bees at all stages of development
- Higher success rate for new beekeepers
3. Swarm Capture
Collecting wild swarms:
- Low-cost method of acquiring bees
- Requires knowledge of swarm behavior and capture techniques
- Bees may be more defensive than selected breeds
4. Colony Division
Splitting an existing colony to create a new one:
- Requires an established, strong colony
- Can be done by beekeepers with experience
- Helps prevent swarming in the original colony
Activity 12.2
1. Design a plan for establishing a small apiary at your school or home.
2. Identify potential locations and evaluate them based on the criteria for good apiary sites.
3. Research the costs of different beekeeping equipment and create a budget for starting a small beekeeping enterprise.
4. Identify local sources for acquiring bees and compare their advantages and disadvantages.
Hive Management
Regular hive management is essential for maintaining healthy, productive colonies. Management practices vary by season.
Spring Management
Spring is a period of rapid colony growth:
- Conduct regular inspections to monitor colony strength
- Ensure adequate space to prevent swarming
- Provide supplemental feeding if natural forage is limited
- Check for signs of disease and pests
- Add honey supers when nectar flow begins
Summer Management
Summer is the main honey production season:
- Monitor honey stores and add supers as needed
- Ensure adequate ventilation to prevent overheating
- Provide water sources near the apiary
- Control pests like varroa mites and wax moths
- Harvest honey when frames are capped
Autumn Management
Preparation for winter is crucial in autumn:
- Ensure colonies have adequate honey stores for winter (15-20 kg)
- Treat for varroa mites if necessary
- Reduce hive entrances to prevent robbing and improve defense
- Combine weak colonies to improve winter survival chances
- Provide windbreaks if needed
Winter Management
Minimal intervention during winter:
- Avoid opening hives in cold weather
- Check periodically for adequate food stores
- Provide emergency feeding if necessary
- Protect hives from extreme weather conditions
Bee Products and Their Harvesting
Bees produce several valuable products that can be harvested and processed.
Honey
Honey is the primary product of beekeeping:
Harvesting Honey
Follow these steps for proper honey harvesting:
- Use a bee brush or blower to remove bees from frames
- Select only frames that are at least 80% capped
- Transport frames to a bee-proof processing area
- Uncap cells using an uncapping knife or fork
- Extract honey using a honey extractor
- Strain honey to remove wax particles and debris
- Allow honey to settle before bottling
- Store in airtight containers in a cool, dark place
Types of Honey
- Blossom honey: From nectar of flowers
- Honeydew honey: From secretions of insects feeding on plant sap
- Monofloral honey: Predominantly from one plant species
- Multifloral honey: From multiple plant species
- Comb honey: Honey sold in the wax comb
- Creamed honey: Processed to control crystallization
Beeswax
Beeswax is produced by worker bees to build honeycomb:
Processing Beeswax
- Collect cappings and old comb
- Melt in a solar wax melter or double boiler
- Strain through cheesecloth to remove impurities
- Pour into molds to form blocks or cakes
- Store in a cool, dry place
Uses of Beeswax
- Candles
- Cosmetics (lip balm, lotions)
- Wood and leather polish
- Foundation sheets for beehives
- Food coating and packaging
| Product | Source | Primary Uses | Harvesting Method |
|---|---|---|---|
| Honey | Nectar processed by bees | Food, medicine, sweetener | Extraction from comb |
| Beeswax | Secreted by worker bees | Candles, cosmetics, polish | Melting and purifying old comb |
| Pollen | Collected from flowers | Nutritional supplement | Pollen traps at hive entrance |
| Propolis | Plant resins collected by bees | Medicine, wood varnish | Scraping from hive surfaces |
| Royal Jelly | Secreted by nurse bees | Health supplements, cosmetics | Harvesting from queen cells |
| Bee Venom | Venom sac of worker bees | Apitherapy, medicine | Electrical stimulation collection |
Bee Health and Pest Management
Maintaining healthy colonies is essential for successful beekeeping. Bees face various pests and diseases that require management.
Common Bee Pests and Diseases
| Problem | Symptoms | Prevention | Treatment |
|---|---|---|---|
| Varroa Mites | Deformed wings, weakened bees, colony collapse | Regular monitoring, drone brood removal | Organic acids, essential oils, synthetic miticides |
| American Foulbrood | Sunken, perforated cappings, foul odor, ropey test | Strong colonies, hygienic bee breeds, equipment sterilization | Antibiotics (where permitted), burning infected colonies |
| Nosema | Dysentery, weak bees, reduced population | Good ventilation, adequate food stores | Fumagillin treatment, requeening |
| Wax Moths | Webbing in comb, tunnel damage, weakened colonies | Strong colonies, proper storage of comb | Freezing combs, biological control (Bacillus thuringiensis) |
| Small Hive Beetle | Slime on comb, beetles in hive, absconding | Strong colonies, good hive maintenance | Traps, soil treatment around hives |
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in Beekeeping
IPM approaches combine multiple strategies for sustainable pest control:
- Cultural controls: Strong colonies, hygienic bee breeds, proper hive placement
- Mechanical controls: Screened bottom boards, drone brood removal, beetle traps
- Biological controls: Beneficial fungi, resistant bee breeds
- Chemical controls: As a last resort, using approved treatments judiciously
Important: Always follow label instructions when using any chemical treatments in beehives. Some treatments can contaminate honey and other bee products if used improperly.
Marketing Bee Products
Successful beekeeping requires effective marketing strategies for bee products.
Potential Markets
- Local markets: Farmers markets, roadside stands
- Retail outlets: Grocery stores, health food stores
- Direct sales: Online sales, farm gate sales
- Specialty markets: Gourmet food stores, restaurants
- Industrial buyers: Food processors, cosmetic manufacturers
- Export markets: International honey buyers
Value-Added Products
Increasing profitability through value addition:
- Flavored honeys (with herbs, spices, or fruits)
- Beeswax candles and cosmetics
- Gift baskets with multiple bee products
- Pollination services for crop farmers
- Bee-related educational products and experiences
Quality Considerations
Maintaining high quality is essential for market success:
- Proper harvesting and processing techniques
- Clean, attractive packaging
- Accurate labeling with product information
- Compliance with food safety regulations
- Consistent product quality
Exercise 12.1
1. Calculate the potential profitability of a small beekeeping enterprise with 10 hives.
2. Create a business plan for a beekeeping venture in your area, considering:
- Startup costs for equipment and bees
- Expected honey production per hive
- Marketing strategy for your products
- Potential challenges and solutions
3. Compare traditional beekeeping with modern beekeeping methods in terms of:
- Initial investment required
- Honey yields
- Colony management
- Environmental impact
Activity 12.3: Project Work
Establish a small beekeeping project at your school or home:
1. Construct or acquire a beehive and necessary equipment
2. Install a bee colony using one of the methods discussed
3. Develop a seasonal management calendar for your hive
4. Maintain records of:
- Colony development and behavior
- Honey production
- Pest and disease issues
- Management activities and costs
5. Harvest and process honey and other bee products
6. Prepare a final report on your beekeeping project, including challenges faced and lessons learned.
Chapter Summary
Beekeeping is a rewarding agricultural enterprise that provides multiple benefits including honey production, crop pollination, and income generation. With proper understanding of bee biology, appropriate equipment, and good management practices, beekeeping can be a sustainable and profitable venture. The importance of bees in ecosystem health and food production makes beekeeping not just an economic activity but also an environmental stewardship practice.
Write a summary of what you have learnt from this chapter in your portfolio.
Chapter 14: Introduction to Farm Tools and Equipment
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn about various farm tools and equipment used in agricultural activities. You will understand their purposes, proper usage, and maintenance practices. The competencies developed will enable you to select appropriate tools for different farming tasks and use them safely and effectively.
Meaning and Importance of Farm Tools and Equipment
Farm tools and equipment are implements used in agricultural production to make work easier, faster, and more efficient. They range from simple hand tools to complex machinery.
Importance of Farm Tools and Equipment
- Increase efficiency and productivity
- Reduce labor requirements
- Improve quality of work
- Enable timely completion of farm operations
- Reduce physical strain on farmers
Classification of Farm Tools and Equipment
1. Hand Tools
Simple tools operated manually without power sources:
-
Hoe
Used for digging, weeding, and soil cultivation
-
Rake
Used for leveling soil, removing debris, and gathering materials
-
Spade
Used for digging and moving soil
-
Trowel
Used for planting seedlings and small digging tasks
-
Secateurs
Used for pruning plants and cutting small branches
2. Farm Implements
Tools that are pulled by animals or tractors:
-
Plough
Used for primary tillage to break and turn soil
-
Harrow
Used for secondary tillage to break soil clods and level fields
-
Cultivator
Used for weed control and soil aeration
3. Farm Machinery
Powered equipment for various farm operations:
-
Tractor
Multi-purpose power source for pulling implements and operating machinery
-
Planter
Used for sowing seeds at proper depth and spacing
-
Sprayer
Used for applying pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers
-
Harvester
Used for harvesting crops efficiently
4. Irrigation Equipment
Tools and systems for water management:
-
Watering Can
Used for manual irrigation of small areas
-
Sprinkler System
Used for overhead irrigation
-
Drip Irrigation System
Used for efficient water application directly to plant roots
Selection of Appropriate Farm Tools
Choosing the right tool depends on several factors:
- Type of farming operation
- Scale of production
- Soil type and condition
- Available resources (labor, capital)
- Farm size and topography
- Crop type and farming system
Proper Use and Maintenance of Farm Tools
Proper Use
- Use tools only for their intended purposes
- Follow manufacturer's instructions
- Use correct techniques to avoid damage and injury
- Work at a comfortable pace to maintain control
Maintenance Practices
- Clean tools after each use
- Oil moving parts regularly
- Sharpen cutting edges when needed
- Store tools in dry, secure places
- Inspect tools regularly for wear and damage
- Repair or replace damaged tools promptly
Safety Measures When Using Farm Tools
- Wear appropriate protective gear (gloves, boots, goggles)
- Inspect tools before use
- Use tools with secure and comfortable grips
- Keep cutting tools sharp - dull tools require more force and can slip
- Carry tools with cutting edges pointing downward
- Never leave tools lying on the ground where they can cause tripping
- Keep tools out of reach of children
- Follow safety procedures for powered equipment
Economic Considerations
When acquiring farm tools and equipment, consider:
- Initial cost versus long-term benefits
- Availability of spare parts and repair services
- Operating and maintenance costs
- Durability and expected lifespan
- Potential for increasing productivity and income
Activity 14.1
Visit your school farm or a nearby farm and:
- Identify at least 10 different farm tools and equipment
- Classify them according to their categories
- Observe how they are used and maintained
- Discuss with the farmer about the importance of each tool
- Write a report of your findings in your portfolio
Exercise 14.1
- Why is it important to select appropriate tools for specific farming operations?
- What factors should a farmer consider when choosing between manual tools and powered equipment?
- How does proper maintenance of farm tools contribute to agricultural productivity?
- Describe five safety measures that should be observed when using cutting tools.
- If you were to establish a small vegetable garden, which five basic tools would you prioritize and why?
Summary
Farm tools and equipment are essential for efficient agricultural production. They range from simple hand tools to complex machinery and are classified based on their power source and function. Proper selection, use, and maintenance of these tools are crucial for maximizing productivity, ensuring safety, and prolonging tool lifespan. Understanding the economic aspects of tool acquisition helps farmers make informed decisions that benefit their farming enterprises in the long term.
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