Chapter One
Introduction to History
Introduction
History is among important subjects which many nations choose for their young generation to study. The reason for such a choice is that history enables citizens to raise their self-awareness and be aware of the world around them. It enables citizens to study different aspects of their society to understand how it came to be the way it is and how those aspects impact the world. This will help them become responsible for themselves, others and their nation.
In this chapter, you will learn about the meaning of history, the importance of studying history, and the relationships between history and other related subjects. You will also learn about the sources of historical information. The competencies developed will enable you to use and value sources of historical information.
Think: History and sources of historical information
Meaning of History
History is a study of events and processes that happened in the past, and which might influence the present. These events and processes are about social, political, and economic developments of people and society. Studying history enables us to answer the following questions, among others:
- What events happened in the past?
- When did they happen?
- Why did they happen?
- Who took part in those events?
- How did the events happen?
- How did they affect people's lives?
In this case, not all events are historical. Therefore, historical events have special qualities.
Qualities of Historical Events
Historical events have specific qualities that differentiate them from non-historical events. For an event to be termed as historical, it must have unique qualities such as the following:
- Significance: A historical event must have a significant impact on shaping the course of history in a particular society. Historical events can have a significant impact on politics, education, and economies, such as trade, industries and agriculture. A good example is the Maji Maji War of 1905-1907.
- Long-term effects: A historical event possesses long-term effects on the society in which it occurred. Some of the events are the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, the Slave Trade, and independence. These events can influence or shape such a society.
- Diversity: Historical events are diverse and cover a wide range of topics. These topics may include social, political, economic, scientific and military events.
- Context: A historical event happens within a specific historical context or place influenced by various factors such as political, social, economic and technological conditions.
- Interpretation: Historical events are subject to interpretation by historians. Historians can come up with different perspectives and narratives that can lead to debates and interpretations on the causes, effects and significance of an event.
- Educative: Historical events provide essential lessons for future generations. By studying the past, societies learn from both the successes and failures, enabling them to make informed decisions in the present and future. For example, resistance to colonial imposition on Africa had lessons to modern nationalist leaders.
- Time: A historical event must have time in which it happened. It is time which specifies one event from another. Indeed, it is time which justifies the occurrence of an event.
Ways of Dating Historical Events
Historians divide time into days, weeks, months, years, decades, generations, centuries, millennia, periods and ages.
A decade is a period of ten years. A generation is a period for children to grow into adulthood and have their own children. This period is commonly 30 years. A century is a period of 100 years. A millennium is a period of 1,000 years.
Age is a period during which a particular historical phenomenon dominates. It may cover several years, centuries or millennia. Known ages in History include the Stone Age, the Iron Age, the Industrial Age, the Nuclear Age, and the Digital Age.
A period is determined by one continuous event lasting for some years. Examples include the period of long-distance trade in East Africa, the period of the slave trade, and the period of colonial rule in Africa.
Chapter Two
Origin of Human Beings
Introduction
Every living creature in the world undergoes development. Human beings, animals, plants, insects, and bacteria have undergone change overtime. Human beings originated from other creatures over millions of years. Changes in succeeding generations made humans better in terms of appearance, mental ability and tool making.
In this chapter, you will learn about the theories of the origin of human beings, stages of human evolution and technological development. The competencies developed will enable you to trace and value your origin.
Think: Origin of the existence of human beings on the earth
Theories of the Origin of Human Beings
A theory is a well-established and generally accepted explanation used to guide the analysis of a phenomenon. A good example of a theory is "Stoicism", which believes in "accepting what you cannot control and focusing on what you can to live a happy life".
The two main theories of the origin of human beings are creation and evolution.
Theory of Creation
The theory of creation is upheld in many religious groups, including Judaism, Christianity, Islam and African indigenous religions. According to the Bible, God created the world and all things within it, including human beings. God created human beings after creating the world, including land, plants, water, and birds.
The original human being was created on the sixth day when God said, "Let us make mankind in our image, in our likeness..." (Genesis 1:26 NIV). The Quran is written: "Who made all things good which He created, and He began the creation of man from clay" (Surah As-Sajdah-32:7). Likewise, many African societies had similar concepts of creation: the Supreme Being created everything, including human beings.
Those who support the theory of creation argue that God created the Earth and all the living and non-living things on it. They say that after the creation of the first man and woman, the human population increased through biological reproduction. They further argue that people migrated to various places on earth.
Theory of Evolution
Evolution is defined as the process of change in the heritable features of a species over numerous generations through natural selection.
The theory is based on the scientific explanation of the origin of humans. It states that humans and non-human primates, notably monkeys and apes, shared a common ancestor more than 13 million years ago. With time, humans split from non-human primates and underwent evolution until they became modern human beings.
A British scientist, Charles Darwin, advanced this theory in his book "On the Origin of Species," published in 1859. In this book, Darwin described how evolution took place. He argued that only the strongest or the fittest would survive among the many born individuals. This implies that only species which are capable of adapting to the environment can live and reproduce. In contrast, the weak ones tend to die or perish. The survivors continue to produce more offspring of their type. In this way, new and stronger species keep appearing in every coming generation.
Evidence for Human Evolution
Two pieces of evidence support the theory of evolution. These are comparative studies of modern animals and fossil evidence.
Comparative studies of human evolution: Evidence from comparative anatomy indicates that two groups of animals with similar features have the same ancestor. Therefore, the anatomical similarity between humans and monkeys suggests that members of the two groups share a common ancestor.
Fossil evidence for human evolution: This evidence is based on animal bones that have survived for many years under the ground. They are used to give evidence of the gradual change in the shape of humans and technological development. Early fossil evidence has been found at different sites in Tanzania, such as Laetoli, Olduva Gorge, Lake Natron, Lake Ndutu and Lake Eyasi in Arusha Region.
Olduva Gorge is the most famous site in Africa concerning human evolution. It produces evidence of physical and technological evolution of humankind. Therefore, Olduva Gorge and other sites have made Tanzania famous as the cradle or original home of human beings.
Archaeologists like Louis Leakey and his wife Mary Leakey discovered fossils in East Africa. They then studied them to find out their human ancestors. Other human remains were discovered in various sites in eastern and southern Africa. These include Koobi Fora in Kenya, Omo and Hadar in Ethiopia, and Sterkfontein and Swartkrans in South Africa. Therefore, eastern and southern Africa are considered the possible homes of human ancestors.
Exercise 2.1
Explain Charles Darwin's contribution to the understanding human evolution.
Major Groups of Human Ancestors
Fossil evidence has shown three main groups of the ancestors of human beings. These are Ardipithecus, Australopithecus, and Homo.
Stages of Human Evolution
Ardipithecus
Ardipithecus is the earliest evidence of a human ancestor who lived from about 5.8 to 4.4 million years ago. Ardipithecus had more ape-like features, such as strong teeth with small enamel, strong arms, and bones, which suggest that it climbed trees and walked on two legs. Ardipithecus was discovered at the Omo archaeological site in Ethiopia.
Australopithecus
Australopithecus is another evidence of human ancestor who lived from about 4.2 to 2.0 million years ago after the disappearance of Ardipithecus. The word "Australopithecus" means the "southern ape". It was first discovered by Raymond Dart in the Taung site, South Africa and named Australopithecus africanus. Other Australopithecines were discovered in various sites in eastern and southern Africa. These include Australopithecus afarensis, which was discovered in Laetoli, Tanzania and Afar, Ethiopia; Australopithecus robustus in Swartkrans, South Africa; and Australopithecus boisei (Zinjanthropus) in Olduvaà Gorge, Tanzania.
Homo
About 2.5 million years ago, a creature called Homo appeared. It was discovered and named Homo because it was believed to represent the first modern human being. Homo differed from Australopithecus by having a smaller body size, relying on meat, and having a bigger brain size. More importantly, Homo started making and using tools. Genus Homo is divided into several species, including Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens sapiens.
Homo Species Development
Homo habilis: This lived approximately between 2.5 and 1.6 million years ago. They were the first human beings able to make and use tools. That is why they were nicknamed the "handyman." Fossil evidence for Homo habilis has been found at Olduvaà Gorge in Tanzania, Koobi Fora in Kenya and Sterkfontein in South Africa.
Homo erectus: This lived between 1.9 million and 300,000 years ago. They were the first to make advanced stone tools called hand axes due to their more advanced brain size than Homo habilis. Homo erectus was the first human to learn how to make and use fire for roasting meat and creating warmth. Fire also enabled them to migrate from Africa and live in other parts of the world. In this case, Homo erectus was the first human to move out of Africa into Asia and Europe. That is why the fossils of Homo erectus are also found in Europe and Asia. Fossil evidence for Homo erectus has been found at Olduvaà Gorge in Tanzania, Koobi Fora in Kenya, Zhoukoudian in China and Dmanisi in Georgia.
Homo sapiens: Homo sapiens lived approximately between 400,000 and 70,000 years ago. Some of the sites in Africa where the fossils of Homo sapiens have been found include Laetoli, near Lake Eyasi and Lake Ndutu in Tanzania; Bodo in Ethiopia; Broken Hill in Zambia; Taung Cave in South Africa; Tangiers in Morocco; and Taramsa in Egypt. Examples of sites outside Africa include the Tabun cave in Israel, Krapina in Croatia and Saccopastore in Italy.
Homo sapiens sapiens: These were the immediate evolutionary ancestors of modern human beings. Their fossil remains are spread all over the world. They date approximately between 150,000 and 20,000 years ago. They had relatively larger brain size than that of Homo sapiens. The fossils of these modern humans were found in Nasera and Mumbai rock-shelter in Arusha, Tanzania; Middle Awash in Ethiopia; and Border Cave and Klasies River Mouth Cave in South Africa.
Activity 2.1
Read various reliable online and library sources on the origin of human beings from a religious point of view, then compare that knowledge with the evolution theory.
Human Technology
The evolution of the human being went hand in hand with technological development. This development passed through two common ages, which were determined by the type of materials used to make tools. Thus, there were the Stone Age and the Iron Age.
Stone Age
Before the Stone Age, our ancestors made non-stone tools using softer materials like bones, wood and plant fibres. However, such tools could not last long hence are difficult to trace. The Stone Age refers to the period in human history when stone was the primary material for making tools and weapons. Human beings used those tools to meet their needs. This period is divided into three phases: the Early Stone Age or the Old Stone Age; the Middle Stone Age, and the Late Stone Age or the New Stone Age.
Early or Old Stone Age
The Early Stone Age lasted approximately from 3.0 million to 400,000 years ago. During this period, human ancestors made and used stone tools for hunting and gathering. They hunted wild animals and gathered fruits, roots, and eggs from the surrounding environment. The Early Stone Age was characterised by the use of two types of tools, namely Oldowan and Acheulian tools.
Oldowan stone tools: Oldowan tools were named after Olduvaà Gorge in Tanzania, where they were first discovered. In addition, they have been found on the shores of Lake Turkana in Kenya and the Omo and Hadar valleys in Ethiopia. The tools were simple and crude, and they were obtained from hard natural rocks, sometimes with little modifications. For the places where they did not modify tools, they used them to perform specific tasks as they picked them. The Oldowan tools included flakes, choppers, and cores used for simple activities such as killing, skinning animals and breaking bones to obtain marrow. They could also be used for breaking nuts and digging roots. The maker of Oldowan stone tools was Homo habilis.
Acheulian stone tools: These tools were discovered first at St. Acheul in France. They were more advanced than the Oldowan tools because they were made by breaking small sharp pieces of stones from hard, bigger rocks. This process is called flaking. The Acheulian stone tools included hand axes, cleavers, and picks. They were used for heavy-duty activities such as falling down trees, killing animals and processing meat. The maker of Acheulian stone tools was Homo erectus. Acheulian stone tools are found in Isimila, Oldwai Gorge, Lake Natron and Laetoli in Tanzania and around Lake Turkana in Kenya. Apart from making stone tools, Homo erectus lived together in small camps, hunted animals, and shared food.
Exercise 2.2
How did human beings manage life during the Early Stone Age?
Chapter Three
Production and Social Organisation in Pre-Colonial Africa
Introduction
Pre-colonial African societies interacted with one another in various ways. The interactions enabled them to produce the basic needs and other necessities of their life. The interactions and production of their necessities influenced social and economic development.
In this chapter, you will learn about the concepts used in social organisation and economic production. You will also learn about communal, slave, and feudal modes of production in pre-colonial Africa and their characteristics. The competencies developed will enable you to differentiate pre-colonial social organisations from contemporary African social organisations so as to maintain good practices and discourage inhuman social relations.
Think: The ownership of the major means of production
Concepts of Social Organisation and Economic Production
In order to explain the socio-economic development that Africa attained before colonialism, it is essential to understand some key concepts.
Social organisation is about how people and groups in the society interact in the process of material production. In this kind of organisation, people are assigned duties according to their positions in the society.
Economic production refers to the process of producing goods and services to meet human needs. It also includes the creation of economic value from raw products. Examples of activities related to economic production are crop cultivation and cloth-making. Thus, with economic production, social organisation is how people are organised and related to each other in the process of producing goods or services.
Human beings need to produce various types of goods and services to survive. They use tools such as hand hoes, machetes, spears, axes, arrows, tractors and computers to produce goods and services. The tools are collectively called instruments of labour.
Thus, instruments of labour mean all tools used by human beings in the production process. The tools range from simple to complex, depending on the level of technology a particular society attains. These instruments extend human's natural organs, such as hands, legs, eyes and the brain. Means of labour help human beings to simplify work. Without them, work becomes difficult.
Instruments of labour are organised around human labour. Human labour is people's physical and mental energy to produce what they want. Physical labour refers to the energy people use to produce what they want. Mental labour is to do with the knowledge and skills that people utilise during production. When labour and instruments of labour have been combined, they are called productive forces.
In production, productive forces act upon resources such as land and forests. These resources are called objects of labour. An object of labour refers to anything on which human labour is applied in order to produce goods. Such resources are primarily found in natural environments, such as land, rivers and forests. That means human beings need objects of labour to work. Otherwise, work becomes impossible.
When human labour, instruments of labour and objects of labour have been combined, they are called means of production. Means of production comprises the combination of means of labour; human labour and objects of labour. They are necessary for the production of goods and services. They are capital and labour. When left alone, the means of labour have no value in life. Therefore, human labour must act on objects of labour to produce goods and services.
People enter into certain kinds of relations in order to produce goods and services. Relations are either exploitative or non-exploitative. Relation is exploitive when the producers of goods and services are not paid accordingly and the vice versa. A combination of productive forces and relations of production constitutes a mode of production. A mode of production of a particular society is meant to meet people's needs.
Activity 3.1
Visit one of the economic production or service provision centres to study production relations, then write a report.
Pre-colonial Modes of Production
Pre-colonial African societies passed through three modes of production, namely communalism, slavery and feudalism. However, not all societies passed through all the three modes of production. The transition from one mode of production to another was largely influenced by the environment and the development of productive forces.
Communalism
Communalism was the first mode of production which all human societies passed through. This mode was also known as primitive communalism. It was called primitive communalism because of the low level of technological development attained by societies.
Communalism was based on collective ownership of the means of production and equal distribution of the gains. In Africa, communalism existed for a much longer time than any other mode of production. It developed when people began to live in communities many years ago.
Some African societies that are still practising communal life include hunter-gatherers such as the Mbuti of the Ituri Forest of Eastern Congo, the San of the Kalahari Desert, the Sandawe and Hadzabe of Northeentral Tanzania, and the Khokhoi of South Africa. Other examples include pastoralist communities like the Fulani of Northern Nigeria in West Africa, the Galla and Somali of north-eastern Africa, the Teso of Uganda and Kenya, the Karamojong of Uganda, and the Ndorobo of Tanzania and Kenya. Some of these societies have adopted new modes of production as a result of their interaction with other societies.
Characteristics of Communalism
Communalism had a number of characteristics as follows:
- The major means of production such as land, forests and water bodies were owned by the whole society.
- The production of goods was done by all people on the basis of gender and age.
- The products of labour were shared according to people's needs.
- There was no exploitation among people. This was because no one was allowed to own the resources individually since all people worked together for a common goal.
- Activities such as hunting, farming and fishing were done collectively.
- Communalism did not produce classes of people. Instead, people respected each other and were equal in principle.
- Production was for immediate consumption. This means that communal societies produced only for survival.
- The division of labour was simple and based on gender. Gender is a social division of labour and responsibilities between men and women.
Transition from Communalism to Other Modes of Production
Communal societies were dynamic. The transition from communal to slave mode of production began when societies had improved in iron technology. Technology facilitated the increase in production, hence the rise of private ownership of properties, such as land. This shift marked a significant step in human history from depending on hunting and gathering to depending on agriculture and animal domestication and from scattered dwellings of hunter-gatherers to permanent farming villages.
The ways of living were transformed as some people became pastoralists and others crop cultivators. For example, after people had discovered the use of iron tools, they began to produce surplus. The production of surplus wealth led to the development of trade and the rise of states. The states were characterised by the emergence of classes, namely slave masters and slaves in the slave mode of production. Later, land owners and peasants or serfs emerged as classes under the feudal mode of production.
Activity 3.2
Read various reliable online and library sources and identify features of primitive communalism that are still found in the present society.
Slave Mode of Production
Slavery was the second mode of production and the first exploitative mode of production in human history. It was a socio-economic system based on private ownership of the means of production, including slave labour. African societies which experienced slavery included Ancient Egypt and some East African coastal societies. These societies owned slaves and used slave labour in income generating activities.
Ways by which People Became Slaves
- People became slaves if they failed to pay their debts.
- Involvement in criminal offences was also another way through which people became slaves. An individual could be sold into slavery after committing a serious crime such as stealing, beating a master or murdering.
- War captives could also be turned into slaves. Some war captives were killed, some were turned into slaves, and some women were made wives of the warriors.
- Inheritance of the slave status was another way through which a person could become a slave. A child could become a slave because the parents were slaves.
- Entering into a contract between a slave and a slave master was another way through which a person became a slave. In this case, a person volunteered to be a slave for a certain period of time because of reasons such as poverty.
- Sometimes, a person could sell a child into slavery in exchange for land, food or money.
Features of Slavery
As a mode of production, slavery was characterised by the following features:
- Under the slave mode of production, the population was divided into free and enslaved people.
- Free people had civil, property and political rights while the enslaved were deprived of all these rights and could not join the ranks of free people.
- The existence of classes of slaves and slave owners characterised the slave mode of production.
- Slave labour became the main means of production where slave masters exploited slaves.
- The masters were economically powerful because they owned property, especially the slaves.
- They also controlled the society's economic, political and cultural institutions.
- The rise of the states also characterised this mode of production.
- The slave mode of production was characterised by the improvement of productive forces, which later facilitated the production of surplus and the division of labour.
Exercise 3.1
What are the limitations of social classes in the society?
Feudal Mode of Production
Feudalism was the third mode of production based on land and cattle ownership. It was the second exploitative mode of production after the slave mode of production. Under this, there were two classes of people. The first class consisted of feudal lords who owned the major means of production and appropriated the surplus. The other one comprised serfs and tenants who were given pieces of land to cultivate. In return, they paid rent to the feudal lords.
Origins and Development of Feudalism in Pre-colonial Africa
Feudalism developed among the African societies which had undergone political centralisation. Powerful kings owned and controlled all the land. They gave some of it to chiefs. The chiefs provided services to the kings in return for the land. They rented some of it to peasants for farming and grazing purposes. The peasants provided certain services to the chiefs in return for the land. They also gave part of their farm produce to the rulers so that they could be protected from all kinds of threats.
The nature of rent which tenants or peasants paid changed as feudalism developed. Initially, peasants paid rent in the form of labour. Later, as feudalism evolved, landlords demanded rent in the form of products from peasants. This form of rent is called rent in kind. Thus, peasants would give some of their produces to landlords as rent. As feudalism developed and the money economy took shape in the societies, landlords started to demand rent in the form of cash. This is also known as money rent.
Some of the feudal states which emerged in Africa included Egypt, Axum, Nubia and Ethiopia in north- eastern Africa, Mwenemutapa and Lunda in central Africa. In the interlacustrine region there were Buganda, Karagwe, Buhaya, and Bunyoro kingdoms. In the East African coast, feudalism existed on the Zanzibar Island. In West Africa there were states such as Ghana, Mali and Songhay, Asante, Oyo, Benin and Dahomey.
Areas that Practised the Feudal Mode of Production
The Interlacustrine Region: The interlacustrine region is the area located between the Great Lakes of East Africa. The lakes are Victoria, Tanganyika, Kivu, Albert, Edward and Kyoga. The kingdoms found in this region were Bunyoro, Busoga, Ankole, Buganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Buhaya and Karagwe.
Buganda: In Buganda, feudalism was connected with the coming into power of Kabaka in the 17th Century. Initially, Kabaka faced strong opposition from the indigenous clan rulers. In order to consolidate his political power in the kingdom, Kabaka decided to take a number of steps. First, he confiscated and controlled all land. Being the controller of land and being in charge of politics in the kingdom, he distributed land to the nobilities, who were known as the Balangira, and to his own favourites known as the Batongore.
Buhaya: Buhaya developed feudal relations like those of the Buganda Kingdom. The feudal system of production that evolved in Buhaya was known as Nyarubanja, which was based on land ownership.
Urundi and Ruanda: The feudal relations in Urundi and Ruanda, nowadays Burundi and Rwanda, were shaped by cattle ownership. Cattle owners formed the class of feudal lords.
The Coast of East Africa: The feudal system that developed on the coast of East Africa was known as Umwinyi. This system existed along the coast for many years. Umwinyi was largely practised in Zanzibar, and it existed side by side with slavery.
Features of Feudalism
As a mode of production, feudalism had the following features:
- The feudal mode of production permitted private ownership of the major means of production especially land.
- There were exploitative relations through which the feudal lords exploited the serfs and peasants who paid various kinds of rent such as labour rent and rent in kind.
- Feudalism was characterised by the presence of classes, namely landlords and serfs or tenants.
- The feudal system also permitted the division of labour and specialisation.
- The productive forces in the feudal mode of production were more advanced than those in communal and slave modes of production.
- Although other economic activities were also carried out during feudalism, agriculture was the major activity.
Activity 3.3
Your class is invited to participate in a debate with the motion "Social classes are necessary for the development of any society". Prepare the points to support or oppose the motion.
Chapter Four
Development of Agriculture in Pre-Colonial African Societies
Introduction
Iron technology in pre-colonial African societies brought significant changes in agriculture. Iron tools enabled communities to clear forests, break up soils and increase production. Farmers could cultivate large plots of land efficiently by using iron tools such as hoes.
In this chapter, you will learn about agriculture, pastoralism and mixed farming in pre-colonial African societies. The competencies developed will enable you to cherish agricultural innovations and practises of the pre-colonial African societies that laid the foundation for modern agriculture.
Think: On benefits of engaging in agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture is an activity involving cultivating crops and keeping livestock. It started at the end of the Late Stone Age after human beings had improved their tools of production. The kind of crops cultivated or animals kept in an area depended on the environment and the efficiency of the tools used.
Examples of crops cultivated in pre-colonial Africa were maize, sorghum, millet, finger millet, yams, and wheat. Domesticated animals included cattle, goats, sheep, camels and donkeys.
Agricultural practices were influenced by environmental factors such as conducive weather conditions, free from diseases, and vegetation cover. These factors worked hand in hand with the level of technology attained by a particular society. The term environment refers to the natural world in which human beings live. It includes fellow human beings, land, water bodies, forests, mountains, and many other physical features.
In addition, the environment includes other man-made features such as dams, buildings, and harbours. As mentioned earlier, environmental factors such as weather conditions, free from diseases and vegetation cover largely determined the types of economic activities undertaken in a given place. For example, crops like bananas and wheat were cultivated in areas that received relatively high amounts of rainfall. In contrast, crops such as sorghum and millet were cultivated in areas that received moderate or low amounts of rainfall in savannah areas.
Technology refers to the practical application of science in making tools. It helps improve human lives in a given environment. For example, the discovery of ironworking enabled human beings to develop tools for agricultural production, defence, and hunting. Our ancestors invented tools which enabled them to control their environment. They continued to improve their technology as they faced new life challenges throughout history. For example, African societies started using stone tools and later invented iron tools. These remarkable achievements led to the development of various economic activities, including agriculture.
Types of Agricultural Practices in Pre-Colonial Africa
Pre-colonial African societies developed three types of agricultural practices by 1700CE. These were crop cultivation, pastoralism, and mixed farming.
Crop Cultivation
Crop cultivation is a type of agriculture involving the use of land to grow different types of crops. There were two types of crop cultivation practiced during the pre-colonial period, namely, shifting and permanent crop cultivation.
Shifting Cultivation
Shifting cultivation involves the movement of farmers from one place to another. This type of crop cultivation was common in grassland areas with long dry seasons and scattered trees. An area with such natural vegetation is known as savannah.
In the savannah areas, soils were light and fertile. However, soil fertility in these areas exhausted quickly after a few years of cultivation. Human settlements in these areas were usually temporary. People lived in an area for a short time and shifted when their land was exhausted. They moved on to open new agricultural land and settled there to begin crop cultivation again. This could be close to the old farmland or far away from it. The old farmland was left to fallow. Sometimes, shifting cultivation involved the use of a particular area for more than one growing season.
Under shifting cultivation, people cleared and burned bushes and trees. Planting and sowing began when rainy season started. The crops grown were mainly the drought-resistant ones such as cassava, millet, sorghum, pumpkins, and cowpeas.
Characteristics of Shifting Cultivation:
- Produced little harvest that could only support a small population
- Little surplus food produced could not support strong centralised states
- Involved livestock keeping as well
- Animals provided milk, meat, blood, manure, and hides
- Practised in areas affected by tsetse flies
Disadvantages of Shifting Cultivation:
- Intensive labour power because it needed much labour to clear the vegetation before planting crops
- Temporary settlements prevented development of permanent infrastructure
- Limited agricultural productivity
Examples: In East Africa, such societies lived in central, southern, and western Tanzania. They also lived in most parts of central and north-eastern Kenya. In West Africa, Mandinka and Bambara were among the societies that practised shifting cultivation.
Permanent Crop Cultivation
This was a form of farming where people cultivated the same land for a long period without moving to another area. Pre-colonial African societies in the eastern, western, southern, central and northern parts of the continent practised permanent crop cultivation.
Regional Examples:
- Central Africa: Shona and Bemba grew millet, sorghum and beans
- West Africa: Ashanti, Yoruba, Akan and Edo grew millet, yams, cassava, groundnuts, bambara nuts and palm oil
- Southern Africa: Shona, Bemba, Sotho and Zulu grew maize, sorghum, millet and beans
- Northern Africa: Berbers cultivated wheat, barley and olives
Advantages of Permanent Crop Cultivation:
- Led to an increase in agricultural production
- Stimulated population growth, since there was adequate food
- Stimulated the exchange of goods or trade
- Led to the development of permanent settlements which rose to urban centers
- Led to the emergence and growth of centralised political systems like chiefdoms and kingdoms
- Encouraged the improvement of farming technology
Disadvantages of Permanent Crop Cultivation:
- Led to increase of conflicts in society
- Conflicts resulted from the scarcity of resources, especially the control of fertile land and iron ore sites caused by the increase in population
Agricultural Techniques in Pre-Colonial Africa
Terracing
Used by Nyakyusa, Shambaa, Sukuma and Nyamwezi to conserve water and prevent soil erosion on hillsides.
Water Canals
Dug in gardens to keep rainwater and ensure proper water management.
Crop Rotation
Buganda, Ankole, Buhaya, and Ufipa grew various crops to conserve moisture and maintain soil fertility.
Bank Making
Made banks on which crops such as yams and potatoes were planted to keep rainwater and prevent soil erosion.
Compost Manure
Plant remains were buried, decayed and became composite manure to enrich soil fertility.
Irrigation
People in highlands such as Chagga, Pare, and Shambaa dug irrigation furrows into their farms.
Animal Manure
Used manure produced by cattle and goats to enrich soil fertility, practised by Ukerewe and Ukara Islands.
Exercise 4.1
Assess the usefulness of pre-colonial agricultural techniques in developing agriculture in Africa today.
Activity 4.1
"Pre-colonial African agricultural practices should be applied in present-day farming techniques for sustainable development". Argue for or against the contention.
Pastoralism
Pastoralism refers to keeping and grazing livestock. People who practised pastoralism were called pastoralists. Ancient pastoral communities kept animals such as cattle, sheep, camel, donkeys, and goats.
Uses of Livestock
- Provided meat, milk, blood, manure, and hides or animal skins
- Animals like camels and donkeys were used for transportation
- Source of wealth and social status
- Used for paying dowry (Lobola in Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi, Shona and Ndebele)
- Slaughtered in traditional ceremonies such as wedding, burial, rainmaking, initiation and coronation
Pastoralism was common in arid, semi-arid, and savannah or tropical grassland areas in pre-colonial Africa. These areas received little rainfall.
Types of Pastoral Societies
Nomadic Pastoralists
These pastoralists often moved from one place to another in search of water and pasture for their livestock. They lived on milk, meat, and blood. They also ate vegetables and food grains such as maize and sorghum obtained through exchange with neighbouring agricultural communities.
Characteristics: War-like people; always ready to fight in defence of their wealth; raided neighbours for livestock.
Examples: Tuaregs of North Africa, Fulani of northern Nigeria, Somali of Somalia and Kenya, Karamajong of northern Uganda, Maasai of Tanzania and Kenya.
Sedentary Pastoralism
Sedentary pastoralism was a form of animal husbandry in which livestock were kept in one location. The livestock kept include cattle, goats, sheep, camels and donkeys. Herders with knowledge of local environment and the needs of the animals tended the livestock.
Characteristics: Enabled pre-colonial African societies to build settled communities; located near water sources and grazing areas.
Examples: Khokhoi and San in southern Africa; Maasai and Samburu in East Africa; some groups of Fulani in West Africa.
Exercise 4.2
- How did nomadic pastoralists in pre-colonial African societies adapt to their environment?
- Explain how sedentary pastoralists in pre-colonial African societies structure their communities.
Mixed Farming
Some societies combined animal keeping and crop cultivation. This type of agriculture is known as mixed farming. It was practised in areas with heavy rainfall as well as in grasslands with seasonal rainfall and woodland savannah.
Examples of Societies Practising Mixed Farming:
- East Africa: Gogo, Nyaturu, Nyiramba, Sukuma, Nyamwezi, Hutu, Ankole, Pare and Kimbu
- Central Africa: Rwozi (applied irrigation and terracing methods)
- West Africa: Hausa, Yoruba, Ewe, Ashanti, Nupe and Igbo
Crops and Livestock in Mixed Farming
- Crops: Bananas, yams, beans, cereals, millet, sorghum, maize
- Livestock: Long-horned Ankole cattle (interlacustrine region), short-horned zebu cattle (drier woodland savannah), sheep, goats, donkeys
- Cash crops: Variety of cash crops alongside food crops
Ways in which Pre-colonial Agriculture Changed Human Lives
- Increased food production leading to population growth
- Emergence of social conflicts giving rise to the need for leadership
- Leadership responsibilities for protecting important resources and distribution of resources
- Rise of specialisations as not every member engaged in agriculture
- Development of skilled crafts like iron tool making, basketry, pottery
- Growth of trade and exchange relations
- Formation of trading posts that grew into urban centers
- Development of cultural and administrative centers like Taghaza, Bilma, Taoden and Niamey in West Africa
Activity 4.2
Imagine you are an expert asked to advise farmers in pre-colonial African societies on how to improve their agricultural activities. Prepare a speech to address the farmers.
Chapter Five
Handcraft and Mining Industries in Pre-Colonial Africa
Introduction
Pre-colonial African societies underwent various transformations in economic aspects such as handicraft and mining. These transformations were largely a result of human's struggle to improve technology to manage the environment.
In this chapter, you will learn about types of industries that existed in pre-colonial Africa. You will also learn different types of minerals extracted in pre-colonial African societies. The competencies developed will enable you to appreciate the efforts our ancestors made to improve their standard of living and sustain life.
Think: Handcraft industries that are available in your society
Handcraft Industries
An industry is a place where transformation of raw materials into finished goods is carried out. In pre-colonial Africa, the natural resources that existed in a given society determined the nature of industries found in that area.
Handcraft refers to an art of using skills and hands to design and fashion things. Handcraft industries were a type of industries in which humans used hands, skills and knowledge to produce different products such as baskets, pots and mats. Handcraft industries enabled people to make and obtain tools and other objects.
In pre-colonial Africa, different handcraft industries emerged as people specialised in other activities apart from agriculture. These included iron making industries, basketry, spinning, weaving, cloth making, carving and canoe making.
Cloth Making
Cloth making was an art of making clothes from local cotton species, barks of trees and animal skins. A number of communities in pre-colonial Africa specialised in cloth making.
Methods and Materials:
- Pounding bark of certain trees
- Decorating clothes using dyes
- Using skins of animals (sheep, goats, camels)
- Cotton cloth making from local cotton
Examples: Haya, Nyakyusa and Ganda (tree barks); Madagascar, Northern Africa, Sudan, Sahel belt (animal skins); Aksum-Sudan, Iwelen-Nigeria, Takrur-Ghana, Ufipa, Unyamwezi (cotton cloth)
Pottery
Pottery is an art of making pots and other items from clayey soils. This skill was common in areas with suitable clayey soil.
Uses of Pottery:
- Cooking utensils
- Storing water, beer, milk, and grains
- Important commodities in local and regional trade
Examples: Pare of Tanzania, Kerewe of UKerewe Island, Kisi of Lake Nyasa, Nok area in Northern Nigeria
Basketry
Basketry is the art of weaving palm leaves and other special reeds to make items like fish traps, mats, hats, baskets and ropes.
Uses of Basketry:
- Collecting and carrying agricultural products
- Storing grain and seeds
- Fish traps for catching fish
- Mats for sitting, sleeping and drying foodstuff
- Wrapping dead bodies for burial
Examples: Nyamwezi, Gogo, Zaramo, Yao, Ganda; Chokwe, Lozi, Tonga of Zambia; Zulu of South Africa
Carpentry
Carpentry involved working on wood logs and poles to make wooden products. This art was common in many African communities living in woodland environment.
Products Made:
- Stools, mortars, pestles, doors
- Canoes, beehives, wooden basins
- Figurines, masks, earrings and bracelets
Examples: Makonde of Southern Tanzania and Northern Mozambique (wood carvings); various communities for canoes and household items
Activity 5.1
Your school has an arranged inter-school debate on the motion, "Handcraft industries are still important in the today's world". Prepare the points that you would give to support or oppose the motion.
Mining Industry
Mining is the extraction of minerals from the ground. It was practised in different parts of Africa by people who had knowledge and skills in mineral extraction. Examples of such minerals in pre-colonial Africa were iron, salt, gold, copper, silver and tin.
Ironworking
Ironworking started in some of the African communities in the first millennium BCE. In East Africa, this technology started around 500BCE and widely spread in the region by around 1700CE.
Iron Production Process:
- Iron ore was mined from the ground
- The ore was smelted in furnaces to purify it
- Pure iron was left to cool and solidify
- The solidified iron was heated until red hot
- It was hammered into different shaped tools or weapons (forging)
Examples of Ironworking Societies: Meru, Kerewe, Haya, Fipa, Baganda (East Africa); Venda of South Africa; Teso of Uganda; Mashona of Zimbabwe; societies in Nubia, Meroe, and Axum
Salt Making
Salt making was among the earliest industries in pre-colonial Africa. There were four main methods of obtaining and processing salt.
Salt Extraction Methods:
- From salty reeds: Burnt reeds, ash dissolved in water, filtered and boiled (Mang'anja people, interlacustrine region)
- Leaching: Water drained through rocky soils, sieved and boiled (Uvinza, Ivuna in Tanzania; Bilma in West Africa)
- Mining from rocks: Directly mined salty rock crystals (Bangwelo, Luapula rivers; Lake Chad; Bilma, Taghaza)
- Evaporation: Ocean water trapped in pans, dried under sun (East African coast - Tanga, Bagamoyo, Dar es Salaam, Lindi)
Uses of Salt
- Food ingredient and preservative
- Medium of exchange (rare commodity)
- Treatment of wounds
- Medicine for curing wounds and indigestion
- Preserving dead bodies from decaying (mummification in Ancient Egypt)
Advantages of Using Iron Tools
- Improvement of tools which facilitated expansion of agriculture
- Simplified mining of minerals and making of other handcrafts
- Increased production of different items
- Rise and development of trade
- Iron bars used as currency in some areas
- Consolidated sedentary or settled life
- Contributed to the rise of states (Fipaland, Buganda, Karagwe)
- Made great changes in warfare
Activity 5.2
Read different reliable online and library sources on the methods used to extract salt, uses of salt and economic opportunities available around salt extraction areas. Then write a report and share it for discussion.
Exercise 5.1
Briefly explain how handcraft industries led to the development of other sectors of the economy, like trade and agriculture.
Gold Mining and Processing
In pre-colonial Africa, gold was mined and processed in different parts of Africa. In Southern Africa, it was mined along River Sabi and River Zambezi. In West Africa, it was mined in areas such as Bambuk, Bure, Lobi and the forest area of Asante.
The Panning Method
In this method, people collected alluvial gold found along the streams or river beds. They used pans to separate gold from sand or rocks. The method was mainly practised along the tributaries of Rivers Sabi and Zambezi which flow across Mozambique and Zimbabwe.
The Shaft Method
Some areas contained underground gold veins. In order to obtain gold, people dug out rocks containing gold. The rocks were then taken to furnaces where they were burnt to obtain pure gold. This method was used in the Mashonaland of Zimbabwe and Asante in Ghana.
Uses of Gold
- Commodity or trade item
- Medium of exchange or form of currency
- Making symbols of power and authority for African rulers (e.g., King's stool among Asante of Ghana)
- Making jewelry, ornaments and decorative materials
- Making golden utensils like cups and plates
- Handles of knives and swords
- Symbol of wealth and power
Copper Mining and Processing
Copper was produced mainly through smelting of copper ores. Ores containing copper were smelted and made into pieces of pure metal shaped like a brick.
Copper Mining Areas: Kafue in Zambia, Gwai River in Zimbabwe, Katanga in Congo, Sinai Peninsula in Egypt, land of Igbo and Yoruba in Nigeria
Uses of Copper
- Making ornaments, bowls, copper wire, daggers, and helmets
- Medium of exchange especially in West Africa
- Making fish hooks (mainly in Egypt)
Activity 5.3
Read various reliable digital and non-digital sources on the methods used to extract minerals in the current society, and compare them with those used in pre-colonial Africa.
Exercise 5.2
Some pre-colonial African societies benefited from mining activities. Identify the benefits of mining activities in the current Africa.
Chapter Six
Social, Political and Education Systems in Pre-Colonial Africa
Introduction
Pre-colonial African societies displayed dynamic characteristics and reached different levels of socio-political development. Such development demonstrates their ability to rule themselves, manage conflicts and select their leaders. By 1500CE, African societies had developed different social and political systems.
In this chapter, you will learn about the concepts of social, political and education systems. You will also learn about the non-centralised political systems that include clan or kinship organisation and the age-set system. You will also learn about the type of education provided in pre-colonial Africa. The competencies developed will enable you apply the positive elements of pre-colonial systems in family and society.
Think: A political authority without central government
Concepts of Social, Political and Education Systems
The term "system" refers to a set of objects/things arranged in such a way that they are interrelated to perform a specific function. Each part has a fixed place and a definite role to play. A good example is the digestive system of a human being.
Political system describes power relations among people and societies. It includes the governing institutions, how leaders make decisions and how they deal with internal and external matters.
A social system is a set of rules, structures and beliefs guiding human interactions and relations in a society. Besides, education is the pattern of knowledge and skills the society transfers from one generation to another to achieve a common goal.
In pre-colonial African societies, the development of social, political and educational systems was not similar in all parts of the continent. It varied from one society to another due to factors like geographical location and technological development of a particular society. Some societies practised non-centralised political systems and others had reached centralised political systems. The two political systems differed on how power was shared among the society members and the nature of social relations that existed.
Activity 6.1
Read Sections 33-36 of Chapter Two of the 1977 Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania, then provide your views on how the Government would perform its functions without the central authority.
Non-centralised Political System
Non-centralised or decentralised social and political systems were a form of organisation with no central authority. Some of the common characteristics of non-centralised political system included:
- They did not have a central ruler known as a king
- Their political leaders were mainly clan heads, assisted by councils of elders
- Political power and authority were shared among the council of elders and clan heads
There were two forms of non-centralised social and political systems in pre-colonial Africa, namely clan or kinship organisation and the age-set system.
Clan or Kinship Organisation
A kinship or clan organisation is a type of social and political organisation involving closely related families with the same or common ancestor. This was the most common form of kinship practised worldwide, including pre-colonial Africa.
Examples: Igbo of West Africa, Sukuma of Tanzania, Kikuyu of Kenya
Types of Kinship:
- Patrilineal: Tracing kin through fathers (Luo, Zulu, Ndebele, Ngoni)
- Matrilineal: Tracing kin through mothers (Luguru, Yao, Makonde, Bemba)
Age-set System
The age-set system is another form of social and political organisation that existed in pre-colonial Africa. Under this form of organisation, the division of labour and social responsibilities was based on age and sex.
Examples: Maasai, Samburu, Nyakyusa, Rendile (pastoral and agricultural communities)
Key Features:
- Division based on age groups
- Specific responsibilities for each age group
- Initiation ceremonies marking transitions
- Council of elders as decision-makers
Characteristics of Clan or Kinship Organisation
- Common rituals, taboos, and customs creating stability and uniqueness
- Self-governing but had no rulers or kings
- Classless societies without centralised political administration
- Small and simple communities with relatively low economic development
- Relied on simple activities: hunting, gathering, fishing, cropping
- Used simple tools made of stone and wood
- Sufficient land with less competition for basic resources
- No marked differences related to wealth or property ownership
Social, Political and Economic Organisation of Clans or Kinships
Economic Organisation
- Family as basic unit of production
- Land owned by whole clan
- Tools belonged to individual families
- Products shared according to needs
- Clan head allocated land to members
Political Organisation
- Clan heads provided leadership
- Regulated political, economic and social relations
- Settled disputes in community
- Arranged marriages for members
- Performed clan rituals
- Acted as guardians of communal properties
Social Organisation
- Settled communities
- Closeness enhanced by cultural elements
- Rituals, values, customs, and taboos connected individuals
- Cultural elements bonded members together
- Ensured existence and sustenance of clan
Exercise 6.1
- What were the roles of the family in pre-colonial African societies?
- Describe how clan or kinship in a non-centralised political system was organised.
- Why were the major means of production under the clan (kinship) organisation owned collectively?
Age-set System
Social, Political and Economic Organisation under Age-set System
There was no central authority under the age-set system. Instead, the role of leadership and decision-making were made by council of elders. In this system, children of the same age were initiated together and taught the values of their community. They were taught about culture, history, and social responsibilities.
After initiation, they were given a group name. From then onwards, they would perform special duties and responsibilities together as an age-set unit. Each age-set consisted of members who belonged to a particular generation. Age groups were determined by initiation, rituals and cultural ceremonies.
Seniority in each age group depended on age, wisdom and good character. Leaders in each age group were older than the rest, more hardworking and more reliable. Obedience was an important aspect of life in an age group. The members of an age group made decisions on day-to-day matters concerning their lives.
Age-set Organisation in Pastoral Communities
Pastoral communities lived in areas with little rain covered by short grass. These areas were mainly arid and semi-arid. Such environment allowed them to engage in pastoralism as a major economic occupation. They kept moving from one place to another with their herds of cattle in search of good pasture and water.
Examples of Pastoralists: Berbers and Tuaregs of North Africa, Fulani and Hausa of West Africa, Somali of North-Eastern Africa, Karamojong of Uganda, Maasai of Tanzania and Kenya, and Khoikhoi of Southern Africa.
Division of Labour in Pastoral Societies
Women and Children
- Stayed and worked at home
- Cooked food and milked cows
- Grazed calves and cared for children
- Children assisted women in household duties
Youth (Moran among Maasai)
- Aged 9-18: Livestock grazing, assisting mothers
- Aged 15-25 (Moran): Six main responsibilities:
- Defending community from enemies
- Protecting livestock against thieves and wild animals
- Raiding neighbouring communities for livestock
- Driving cattle to new grazing land
- Collecting tribute from traders
- Surveying neighbouring areas for pastures and water
Elders
- Aged 40 and above
- Respected senior age group
- Owners of cattle in households
- Most senior member called laibon
- Top cultural, political and religious authority
- Presided over major ceremonies
- Link between people and gods
Maasai Age-set Structure
(Head of Council)
(Elders 40+)
(Youth 15-25)
(9-18 years)
Activity 6.3
The Maasai are among the societies that practised age-set organisation. Draw a tree diagram indicating different age groups and their respective roles.
Age-set Organisation in Agricultural Communities
Nyakyusa Example: The Nyakyusa were among the agricultural communities that practised the age-set system. The Nyakyusa population tended to rise very rapidly, which led to a dense concentration of people in small areas. They owned vast areas of fertile land that could be used for agricultural production activities.
To prevent overpopulation in small areas, they adopted the age-set system. In this case, the youth of a specific age group were allocated a new piece of land to occupy and establish their settlement. The heads of respective age groups, called amafumu, headed each age village. A ceremony called ubusoka was held to mark the passage of a new age group into adulthood.
Rendile Example: Another agricultural community that practised the age-set organisation was the Rendile of northern Kenya. Age-set organisation among the Rendile involved grouping people with similar age into separate age-sets. Each age-set was given specific responsibilities. Some of these responsibilities involved managing and taking care of community resources. Age-set organisation among the Rendile community served as an important element in keeping their agricultural practices and promoting unity within the community.
Activity 6.4
Read various reliable digital and non-digital sources on age-set system and identify lessons that the current African societies can learn from age-set organization in agricultural communities.
Exercise 6.2
Describe how the age-set system in non-centralised political system was organised.
Education System in Pre-Colonial African Societies
Pre-colonial education is defined as a life-long process of transmitting and imparting knowledge, skills, values, norms and experiences from one generation to another in a given society. Pre-colonial education was delivered through active participation and observation.
Each clan had ways of transmitting knowledge, skills, values and cultural norms, including taboos, to its young generation. Each adult participated in transmitting knowledge. Youth training depended on the experience of the trainer in a specific field.
Methods of Education
- Active participation and observation
- Word of mouth and direct involvement
- Learning by doing
- Practical skills training
- Cultural ceremonies and rituals
- Apprenticeship systems
Character Development
Develop children's character, physical strength and intellectual abilities. Children were taught practical skills and self-dependence.
Peace and Security
Promote peace and security in the society. The education trained the youth to defend their societies against enemies.
Leadership Preparation
Prepare the youth to take over after the end of the existing phase of leadership in their societies.
Patriotism
Make the youth patriotic. It was the duty of elders to impart a sense of patriotism to the youth.
Characteristics of Pre-colonial Education
- Practical in nature: Youth taught through hands-on experience in fishing, farming, iron smithery
- Lacked uniformity: Varied from one society to another based on economic, social and environmental conditions
- Valuable and relevant: Contained positive elements that shaped society culture
- Not class-biased: Provided to all members regardless of wealth or status
- Not financially motivated: Instructors not paid, received gifts instead
- Emphasized good morals: Taught good character and condemned undesirable behavior
- Promoted specialisation: Reflected in diviners' or healers' activities
Gender-specific Training: Boys were taught military techniques and herding, while girls learned household duties, cooking, cultivation and child care. Women who lost husbands were not allowed to inherit wealth, and in some societies, women were not allowed to eat certain foods or learn iron-working.
Activity 6.5
You are among the students chosen to participate in the debate on the motion "Pre-colonial education was better than formal education". Provide clear arguments to support or oppose the motion.
Activity 6.6
Explore your ethnic group to study the practices of pre-colonial education, its strengths and weakness and good aspects that African societies can learn and maintain today.
Chapter Seven
State Organisation in Pre-Colonial Africa
Introduction
The process of state formation in pre-colonial Africa varied across regions and time. While some regions developed into centralised states, others remained decentralised. This chapter extends the discussion on state organisation from Chapter Six.
In this chapter, you will learn about the centralised states in western, central, southern and eastern Africa. The competencies developed will enable you to value and maintain good African historical processes of establishing and maintaining good governing institutions.
Think: Modern states in Africa.
Meaning of a State
A state is a centralised political organisation that imposes and enforces rules over resources and people within a territory. The important elements that make up a state include:
- People
- Territorial boundaries
- Sovereignty (freedom from foreign rule)
- Government
The development of centralised states in pre-colonial Africa was gradual and influenced by different factors. In the history of Africa, political centralisation started with Ancient Egypt from about the 3rd millennium BCE. However, the process became more widespread and consistent from about the 5th century and continued through the 19th century. Pre-colonial African states in eastern, western, central and southern Africa had different characteristics and organisational structures.
Centralised States in East Africa
Several centralised states developed in East Africa. They included Buganda, Bunyoro, Karagwe and Ruanda-Urundi. Other states like Nyamwezi, Chagga, Hehe, Sangu, Sukuma, Pare, Shambaa, and Kamba were semi-centralised.
Bunyoro Kingdom
The Bunyoro Kingdom is traced back to the kingdom of Bunyoro-Kitara founded by the Bachwezi people in the 13th century. By the 16th century, Bunyoro-Kitara had started to decline and gave rise to new and smaller kingdoms. One of the new kingdoms, which emerged, was Bunyoro. The title of the king of Bunyoro was Omukama.
Factors for the Rise of Bunyoro Kingdom:
- Influence of traditions: Omukama chosen from ruling family
- Role of strong kings: Like Omukama Kabarega with standing army
- Geographical conditions: Fertile area with good climate
- Strong political system: Divided into provinces ruled by Saza chiefs
Factors for Decline:
- Expansion in size made control difficult
- Disputes in the ruling family
- Limited control over regional chiefs
- Breakaway of provinces (Buddu, Toro, Busoga, Koki)
Buganda Kingdom
The Buganda Kingdom was situated in the southwest of modern Uganda. It started as a small political unit in the 16th century and began to expand from the 17th century. It reached its peak of prosperity in mid-19th Century. The Buganda Kingdom was one of the highly centralised states in East Africa. The title of the king was Kabaka.
Factors for the Rise:
- Development of agriculture in fertile area
- Formation of strong and stable army
- Clear system of leadership succession
- Control of trade and collection of tributes
- Strong link between state and clans
- Religious beliefs and practices
- Development of iron technology
Factors for Weakening:
- Establishment of colonialism
- Religious differences and conflicts
- Introduction of colonial economy
- Conflicting administrative interests
Exercise 7.1
Compare the administrative systems of Buganda and Bunyoro Kingdoms and their influence on the rise of state formation.
Western Sudanic States
The earliest centralised states in the western Sudanic zone were Ghana, Mali, and Songhay.
Development of Western Sudanic States
Ghana Empire
Located in southern Mauritania and Mali. Capital: Kumbi Saleh. King's title: Tunka or Ghana. Famous for gold trade and strong army of 200,000 soldiers.
Mali Empire
Rose after Ghana's decline. Founded by Sundiata Keita. Capital: Niani. Most famous ruler: Mansa Musa. Controlled gold mines and trade routes.
Songhay Empire
Largest of the western Sudanic states. Capital: Gao. Prominent leaders: Sunni Ali and Askia Mohamed. Controlled Trans-Saharan trade routes.
Common Factors for Rise
- Control of trade routes
- Gold production and trade
- Strong military forces
- Efficient administrative systems
- Agricultural development
- Iron technology
Common Factors for Decline
- Internal succession conflicts
- External attacks and invasions
- Vastness of empires
- Shift in trade routes
- Dissatisfaction of vassal states
Exercise 7.2
How did trade and commerce facilitate state formation in the Western Sudanic States?
Forest States of West Africa
In pre-colonial Africa, a number of states also developed in the Forest Zone of West Africa. The most important forest states were Asante, Oyo, Benin, and Ife. Most of these states were found by the Yoruba people. State formation among the Yoruba began in the 11th century.
| Kingdom | Founders/People | Key Features | Factors for Rise | Factors for Decline |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Asante Kingdom | Oyoko people (Akan clans) | Golden Stool symbol, strong army, gold trade | Soil fertility, military strength, trade, strong leadership | British attacks, abolition of slave trade, vastness |
| Ife Kingdom | Yoruba people (Oduduwa) | Spiritual center, bronze artwork | Good climate, revenue collection, good leadership | Growing influence of Oyo Kingdom |
| Benin Kingdom | Edo-speaking people | Great walls, bronze art, organized military | Strong leadership, strong army, trade with Portuguese | Civil wars, slave trade, British invasion |
| Oyo Kingdom | Yoruba descendants | Cavalry army, Trans-Atlantic trade | Military strength, trade, strong leadership | Leadership problems, end of slave trade, internal conflicts |
Exercise 7.3
Investigate the role of influential leaders in state formation in the Forest States of West Africa.
Exercise 7.4
Briefly explain the role of religion in promoting the growth of the Asante Kingdom.
Central African Kingdoms
Pre-colonial Central African kingdoms included Kongo, Mwenemutapa, Luba, Lunda, Malavi and Lozi.
Kongo Kingdom
One of the most important kingdoms in Central Africa, starting towards the end of the 14th century. Highly centralised by 1482 when Portuguese arrived. Capital: Mbanza (San Salvador). King's title: Mani Kongo.
Factors for Rise:
- Development of arts and crafts
- Frequent movement of people
- Religious beliefs (king as semi-god)
- Monopoly of trade
- Favourable climatic conditions
- Population increase
Factors for Decline:
- Introduction of Christianity
- Resistance from provincial governors
- Introduction of slave trade
- Conflicts with Portuguese
Mwenemutapa Kingdom
Founded around the 15th century in present-day Zimbabwe. Name means "master of the conquered land." Famous for gold, copper, and ivory trade. Capital: Great Zimbabwe.
Factors for Rise:
- Trading activities (gold, copper, ivory)
- Rise of ambitious leaders
- Role of indigenous religion (Mwari cult)
- Strong and well-equipped army
Factors for Decline:
- Resistance against payment of tributes
- Arrival of Portuguese merchants
- Portuguese attacks on trading centers
- Control of gold mines by Portuguese
Luba and Lunda Kingdoms: The Luba Kingdom was located on the upper Lualaba River valley around Lake Kisale. The Lunda Empire was established by immigrants from the Luba Kingdom in the 15th century. Both kingdoms benefited from metalworking technology, fishing, trade, and good leadership. They declined due to slave trade and succession conflicts.
Exercise 7.5
Briefly explain the lessons that modern societies in Central Africa can learn from ancient Kingdoms in the region.
Southern African Kingdoms
Zulu Kingdom
The Zulu Kingdom extended from the coast of the Indian Ocean and Tugela River in the South to the Pongola River in the North of today South Africa. The Kingdom rose in the 19th century under the leadership of Dingiswayo. It lasted from 1800 to 1817. Later on, the kingdom developed into the most powerful state under the leadership of Shaka (Chaka) who was a military leader.
Factors for the Rise of Zulu Kingdom:
- Centralisation of power under Shaka Zulu: Took control of areas that enjoyed some freedom
- Influence of annual cultural festivals (Inewala): Built sense of belonging, unity, and loyalty
- Control of trade: Controlled ivory trade and exchanged it for beads, clothes, and guns
- Standing army: Permanent, well-trained soldiers using cow horn formation and short stabbing spears (assegai)
- Development of agriculture: Crop production and livestock keeping ensured food supply
Decline of Zulu Kingdom:
- Boer invasion in the 1830s: Boers moved from Cape searching for grazing land
- Weak leadership of Shaka's successor: Dingane lacked strong leadership qualities
- British colonisation of South Africa: Ended power of African chiefs and established colonial rule
Activity 7.1
Read different reliable digital and non-digital sources to identify the pre-colonial African political structures that continue in the modern African states despite colonial and post-independence changes.
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