LITERATURE IN ENGLISH FORM FIVE NOTES

Chapter One: The Concepts of Literature

Introduction

As a student of Literature in English subject, you will encounter several literary texts written in English inside and outside the classroom. In this chapter, you will learn the concepts of literature, society, artists, imagination, culture, creativity, literary language and folklore. You will also learn the genres and sub-genres of written literature and their respective characteristics. Finally, you will learn the relationship between form and content. The competencies developed in this chapter will enhance your reading, writing, and analytical skills and abilities.

The concepts associated with literature and how they relate to it.

Literary aspects

Activity 1.1

Read the following text about the concept of literature and answer the questions that follow.

Literature is defined variously by scholars. For example, Derrida (1992) defines literature as "the power to say everything, break free of the rules, displace them, and thereby to institute, invent and even suspect the traditional difference between nature and institution, nature and conventional law, nature and history". Moreover, Boulton (1980) defines literature as an "imaginative work that gives us recreation, recognition, revelation and redemption" while Rees (1973) defines literature as a "permanent expression in words of some thoughts or feelings in ideas about human life and the world."

Questions

1. What common features are expressed in the given definitions of literature?
2. Discuss the implication of the recurring features of literature expressed in the given definitions.
3. Using ideas from the given definitions, define literature in your own words.

Activity 1.2

Use library and online materials to explain the following concepts:

1. Society
2. Artist
3. Creativity
4. Imagination
5. Literary language

Takeaways

Society

Society and literature are interrelated. There is no way we can separate a society from the literary texts that its people produce. Primarily, aspects of society such as peoples' cultures, traditions, beliefs, values, life styles, and faiths are raw materials for literary texts. These elements constitute the society, and they are the artefact of the literary text.

Artist/creator

For a work of art to be performed and convey meaning, an artist or creator should be capable of channelling his/her worldview in a message that the audience can understand. In literature, the artist/creator expresses his/her views in the forms of poetry, play or prose narratives. These genres of literature are the products of writers' creative works.

Creativity

Unlike other texts, such as biology, chemistry, and physics, literary texts are unique in terms of the way they convey the message. The event represented in the text might be ordinary or familiar, but the language used to represent it will make the event appear new. This newness or originality of the message and the way it is conveyed is what justifies the creative nature of literature.

Imagination

A literary work contains events or information which can be real (factual) or imagined. Imagination is the central concept in literature, and it entails how creative writers create a world out of fantasy. In literature, a creative writer is capable of creating a fictional world, a world that does not exist physically. A writer can also re-imagine the existing one by crafting it to make readers perceive it as something new or original. It is out of imagination that creative writers create images, characters, events, themes, etc., that appeal to visual and intellectual sensation.

Literary language

The language used in literature differs from the one used in our day-to-day conversations. Literary language is characterised by being rich in terms of aesthetic elements such as figures of speech and literary devices. These elements of form justify the literariness of a literary text because they are language-based elements and the means through which the content is conveyed to the audience. As you read or listen to a literary text, think of how the language used modifies verbal patterns, embodies elements of beauty, and evokes emotional feelings in the audience.

Culture

Certain moral codes always regulate the life of human beings. Each society has its moral codes, though some common codes are shared between one society and another. These moral codes can be realised through language, beliefs, customs, institutions, clothing, foodstuff, house designs, music, dance, traditional medicine, courting, visual arts and celebrations. All these comprise the so-called cultural-based activities. Literature or art does not come from the vacuum; it draws its materials from the lived experience, including cultural experience. Thus, what the creative writer does to create a story is to imagine and re-imagine his/her society based on the day-to-day cultural activities of a particular society.

Exercise 1

1. With examples, discuss the relationship between imagination and creativity.
2. Examine the interplay between literature and society.
3. With examples, explain why the author of a literary text is viewed as a creator.
4. Explain why the concept of literature does not have one-embracing definition.

The concept of folklore

Activity 1.3

a) Use various sources to write the sub-genres under the appropriate genre of folklore.

Oral literature	Material culture	Social folk customs	Performing folklore

b) Write short notes on each of the listed sub-genres.

Activity 1.4

Use various online or library materials to explain the concept of folklore.

Takeaways

Folklore

The history of folklore cannot be separated from the history of human beings. In Africa, for example, folklore is associated with early human socio-cultural activities such as hunting and gathering. Usually, as the day ends, a family or society members could sit together (especially during evening hours) to narrate their daily encounters. These narrations varied from one person to another and included songs, proverbs, riddles, and tales, among others. Out of these narratives, the genre of literature called oral literature emerged. William John Thoms (1846) coined the term "folklore" as another name for oral literature. Scholarly publications have popularised "folklore", regarding it as a literary genre that focuses on studying people's culture and origin.

The American scholar, Allan Dundes (1965), documents well this idea of folklore and he suggests including in it sub-genres such as myths, legends, folktales, jokes, proverbs, riddles, chants, charms, blessings, curses, oaths, insults, retorts, taunts, teases, toasts, tongue-twisters, greeting and leave-taking formulas, folk costume, folk dance, folk drama (and mime), folk art, folk belief (or superstition), folk medicine, folk instrumental music (e.g., fiddle tunes), folk songs (e.g., lullabies, ballads), folk speech (e.g., slang), folk similes, folk metaphors, and names (e.g., nicknames and place names), folk poetry (e.g., oral epics, autograph-book verse, epitaphs, latrinalia, limericks, ball bouncing rhymes, jump-rope rhymes, finger and toe rhymes, dandling rhymes, counting-out rhymes, and nursery rhymes), games, gestures, symbols, prayers (e.g., graces), practical jokes, folk etymologies, food recipes, quilt and embroidery designs, house, barn, and fence types, street vendor's cries, and the traditional conventional sounds used to summon or command animals.

Exercise 2

1. With examples, differentiate each pair of the following folklore materials:
   • (a) Folk similes and folk metaphors
   • (b) Gesture and symbol
   • (c) Folk medicine and folk belief
   • (d) Folk poetry and folk song
   • (e) Myth and legend
   • (f) Greeting formula and leave-taking formula
2. With examples, write short notes on the following:
   • (a) Food recipe
   • (b) Latrinalia
   • (c) Limerick
   • (d) Epitaph
   • (e) Mnemonic device
   • (f) Nursery rhyme
3. "Folklore is life." With examples, argue for or against this statement.

Chapter Two: The Origin and Development of Literature

Introduction

Literary theories are tools that enable one to have a better and more meaningful understanding of literary forms and conventions, and interpret literary works. In this chapter, you will learn the origin and development of literature nationally and internationally based on mimetic, myth and ritual theories. You will also examine their contribution to the selected literary texts. Lastly, you will apply the theories to trace the origin and development of various genres of folklore and written literature. The competencies developed will help you interpret different literary works in different social and historical contexts.

The origin and development of literature across cultures and times.

Theories of the Origin of Literature

Activity 2.1

Read online or library materials and answer the following questions:

1. Explain the meaning of the term theory.
2. Explain the importance of theories in studying literature.

Mimetic Theory

Activity 2.2

Read the following story and answer the questions that follow.

Never Say Never

Kulwa is one of the most successful businessmen in the country. He owns a beverage company in Morogoro and runs rice and sugar businesses all over the country. However, things didn't start as smoothly as one may think. He was born and raised in Dumila, Morogoro, where his father was a primary school teacher and his mother a peasant. His parents struggled to make the family live a moderate life. Sometimes, things would be challenging as the salary his father earned monthly and the money his mother got from selling veggies and sweet potatoes couldn't help them make it through the month. Despite all the hardships in life, Kulwa acquired some business skills ever since he was a young boy. After school, he used to help his mother with the business, and she would return home to prepare meals for the family. Kulwa would compete for customers who were travellers along the Morogoro-Dodoma road. He would oftentimes beat other sellers mostly due to his ability to attract customers' attention. Whenever a car stopped alongside the road, he would run very fast, and upon getting to the customer, he would meticulously and convincingly market what he was selling. Every now and then, he developed new tactics for winning customers and increasing sales.

Academically, Kulwa was a struggling student from the get-go. The story goes that during his school days, he was labelled kilaza by some of his schoolmates. Some of his teachers treated him the same way. He was allocated a desk at the back of the classroom as he was considered one of the low-performing pupils. Kulwa had a twin sister, Dotto, who was exceptionally bright and gifted, and as such, Kulwa became commonly referred to by his peers as "ET" — the "escort twin."

One day, a teacher instructed Kulwa to solve a mathematical problem on the chalkboard. Kulwa shivered out of fear and discomfort before loudly telling the teacher that he couldn't. "Of course you can," the teacher responded encouragingly. "Young man, come up here and solve this problem for me." "I can't do that, Sir," insisted Kulwa. "I'm kilaza." The rest of the class erupted in laughter. At that point, the teacher stepped out of his desk and looked directly into Kulwa's eyes. "Don't ever say that again," he told him firmly. "Someone else's opinion of you is not always what you are."

Kulwa was inspired by those words. He embraced that thinking, and from that moment, he spent the rest of his life struggling tirelessly and passionately as he pursued his goals. Time and time again, Kulwa remembered that teacher and thanked God for sending him to change his life. Ever since, Kulwa has lived those words and turned himself into a successful and famous businessman in Morogoro and beyond.

Questions

1. What is the story about?
2. Who narrates Kulwa's story?
3. How did the narrator learn about Kulwa?
4. Do you consider the story real or imaginary? Give reasons.

b) Use the evidence from the story to explain the concept of imitation in literature.

Activity 2.3

a) Use various online sources to explain what mimetic theory is.

b) Examine the strengths and weaknesses of mimetic theory.

Takeaways

Mimetic theory, also known as the theory of imitation, was originally introduced by the Greek scholar Aristotle. Mimetic comes from the Greek word mimesis, meaning "copy". The words "copy," "representation," and "imitation" are used interchangeably to refer to this theory. The central claim of imitation theory is that literature represents the copied experiences of the author from the community. The theory, therefore, holds the assumption that a literary text is a product of the author's imitation of the surroundings. After imitating, the author represents the imitated experiences through narration, dramatisation, or recitation. Literary texts that are said to be the representation of the imitated experiences are usually heightened by the writers' true or imaginary encounters with what is happening in society.

Myth Theory

Activity 2.4

a) Read the following story and answer the questions that follow.

Baobab

The first baobab grew near a small lake. It grew very tall until it started seeing other trees. Some trees were taller and slim, some had beautiful coloured flowers, and others had attractive leaves. One day, the baobab saw a reflection of itself in the lake. That reflection surprised it to its root hairs. It also saw at the shore of the lake a huge fat twig covered in a bark that looked weird with small leaves and pale, creamy flowers.

Very distressed, the baobab complained to the Creator. "Why did you make me so ugly?" "Why couldn't you make me beautiful like jacaranda tree with beautiful pale purple flowers?" "Why did you make me so ugly?" the baobab griped. "Look at the beautiful palm tree. Look at the mango tree! What about me? Why couldn't you give me a nice shape and flowers?" For a long time, the baobab went on crying and complaining.

The creator was becoming increasingly furious with the wailing and complaining of the baobab. In the end, he was determined to silence the baobab forever. The creator came down, pulled it out of the earth and replanted it upside down. From that day on the baobab could no longer see its image. Since then, it has been compensating its ancient disobedience by being a very useful and helpful tree around the world. Due to that usefulness it has been named the 'Tree of Life.'

Source: Adapted from https://thebaobabway.com/baobab-myths-and-stories/ (June 2024)

Questions

1. What is the story about?
2. What does the personification of the baobab tree suggest?
3. Is the story based on the truth or belief about the nature of a baobab? Why do you think so?
4. What do you think are the mythical features in the story? Give reasons.

b) Use the knowledge gained from the story to explain the concept of myth.

Activity 2.5

a) Use various online or library materials to explain the myth theory.

b) Examine the strengths and weaknesses of the myth theory.

Takeaways

The word myth comes from the Greek word mythos, which means "word" or "story". It is a traditional story that explains the early history, the origin of something, or the reasons for certain behaviours, cultural beliefs or practices of people. In literature, myth theory is believed to have played a significant role in its origin by providing ancient societies with stories, themes, and characters that inspired the creation of written texts. It unfolds the characteristics of myth, such as the plot, settings, nature of the characters, and themes. The theory of myth is often used to examine the mythic elements within a text, such as the underlying themes, symbols, and structures present in a literary text. By doing so, readers gain a deeper understanding of the texts' cultural, psychological, and symbolic significance.

Ritual Theory

Activity 2.6

a) Read the following extract and respond to questions after it.

On the following day, the village celebrates the next event in the marriage of the daughter of Obierika, Okonkwo's friend. The uri is a ritual in which the suitor presents palm-oil to everyone in the bride's immediate family, her relatives, and her extended group of kinsmen. For this ceremony, primarily a woman's ritual, the bride's mother is expected to prepare food for the whole village with the help of other women.

Ekwefi is exhausted after the preceding night's events. She delays going to the celebration until Ezinma wakes and eats her breakfast. Okonkwo's other wives and children proceed to Obierika's compound; the youngest wife promises to return to prepare Okonkwo's afternoon meal.

Obierika is slaughtering two goats for the soup and is admiring another goat that was bought in a neighbouring village as a gift to the in-laws. He and the other men discuss the magic of medicine used in the other village that draws people to the market and helps rob some of them. While the women are preparing for the feast, they hear a cry in the distance, revealing that a cow is loose. Leaving a few women to tend the cooking, the rest go find the cow and drive it back to its owner, who must pay a heavy fine. The women check among themselves to be sure that every available woman has participated in rounding up the cow.

Adopted from Achebe, C. (1958). Things Fall Apart. William Heinemann

Questions

1. What is the story about?
2. How is the meaning of the events performed in the ritual of uri culturally symbolic?
3. Focussing on the suitor, the bride's mother and the bride, explain how rituals set cultural expectations.
4. Explain how elements of rituals enrich the story.

b) Use the knowledge gained from the story you have read to explain the concept of ritual.

Activity 2.7

a) Use various online or library materials to explain the ritual theory.

b) Examine the strengths and weaknesses of the ritual theory.

Takeaways

Ritual theory is a multidisciplinary theory that is used to study and interpret rituals across various cultural, religious, and social contexts. It includes various perspectives from disciplines such as anthropology, literary studies, sociology, psychology and religious studies. Ritual theory focuses on social interaction; it is believed that rituals form group emotions that are linked to cultural symbols, beliefs, and thinking. In Greek literary history, the origin of drama is associated with ritual theory, specifically the worship of Dionysius, a god of wine and fertility. Each year, Greek people went to a sacred place (shrine) to perform rituals in praise of or honour Dionysius. During this ceremony, there were the audience (Dionysius), actors (the Greeks), stage (sacred place/shrines), and message (what they intended god to do for them). In addition, there are singers (chorus), stories, and special costumes. These elements were adapted into written drama (play) in the 5th century, and drama became central to the Greek community.

Ritual theory helps in literary analysis by offering a framework for understanding the symbolic, psychological, and cultural dimensions of rituals represented in literary texts. It motivates readers to explore the meaning and implications of ritualistic practices used in storytelling.

The Contribution of Imitation, Ritual, and Mythical Elements in Literary Texts

Activity 2.8

Read a play and answer the following questions:

1. Examine how rituals are used in the literary text to create meaning for readers.
2. Discuss how the characters and events in the selected text mirror real-world phenomena or human experiences.

Activity 2.9

Read a literary text and answer the following questions:

1. Examine how the story engages with mythological elements.
2. Explain how the mythical elements used in the story enrich the narrative and deepen its meaning.
3. Discuss the relationship between art and life in a literary text.

Exercise 7

1. Examine the strengths and weaknesses of using imitation, myth, and ritual theories in literary analysis.
2. How do these theories enhance our understanding of the relationship between a text's literary techniques and social and cultural contexts?
3. Assess the contribution of the three theories to a rich and in-depth analysis of a literary text.
4. Discuss the possible challenges associated with these theories regarding literary interpretation and application.
5. How effective is the mythological framework in offering insights into the text's meaning and significance?

The Origin and Development of Various Genres of Written Literature Internationally

Drama/Play

Activity 2.10

a) Read a play and answer the following questions:

1. Explain the mythical elements exhibited in the play.
2. Explain the elements of imitation exhibited in the play.
3. Explain the elements of ritual represented in the play.
4. Use mythical, imitation, and ritual theories to trace the origin of drama/play.

b) Use various online or library materials to trace the emergence and development of drama internationally based on the following headings:

1. The emergence and development of classical Greek drama
2. The development of Medieval drama (Middle Ages)
3. The contribution of the Renaissance movement to the spread and development of drama in Europe
4. The contribution of the Elizabethan era to the development of the English drama
5. The contribution of the Restoration Age to the spread of drama in Asia and America

c) Use various online or library materials to trace the emergence and development of drama in Africa based on the following headings:

1. Pre-colonial/Ancient African drama
2. Nationalist drama
3. Modern drama

Takeaways

Classical Greek Drama

Drama started to develop in Greece in the 6th century B.C., and it was connected with the worship of the Greek god called Dionysus. The rationale for linking the origin of drama and imitation theory can be established by analysing the ancient hymns called dithyrambs which were sung in honour of Lord Dionysius. The hymns were adopted in drama as the chorus, in which participants wore special costumes and masks. This provides a dramatic pattern that is observed during the performance.

Drama in the West (Europe)

From Greece, drama spread and developed in other European countries such as Italy, England and France at different times. For instance, mystery plays flourished during the medieval period (13th-16th centuries). They portrayed religious content, mainly the world's creation, the death of Jesus Christ and the last judgement. The development of drama reached its climax during the Renaissance movement in the 16th century. It was during this time that Europeans began to venture into new lands. New ideas were born, and the church was separated from the state. This newness led to the development of new secular forms of play. Secular plays reminded people more about order and nationalism and encouraged them to stop struggling for power.

Drama in Africa

Three phases may be identified in the evolution of contemporary African theatre (drama) from traditional origins: Pre-colonial or ancient African, nationalist and modern drama.

Pre-Colonial/Ancient African Drama

The roots of traditional African drama emerged from various sources such as religious ceremonies, funeral customs and imitation of life, oral storytelling, and folk tales. Similar development patterns can be observed in various regions globally. In this phase, drama arose from the close relationships between individuals, communities, and the natural world. It satisfied basic human needs like amusement and adoration, and it was ritual, ceremonial and oral in transmission.

The Nationalist Drama

Foreign influences were introduced into contemporary African play during its second stage, which is known as the nationalist phase in Nigeria and other parts of West Africa. In their efforts to convert more people to Christianity, European churches used theatre to educate and evangelize the local populace while advancing European culture.

The Modern Drama

This phase comprises the postcolonial and contemporary playwright and their works. In West Africa, it is marked by playwrights such as Hubert Ogunde, a Nigerian theatre pioneer, who combined Yoruba music and dances with novel features to create Native Air Opera, which is considered the first theatrical tradition.

Exercise 8

1. Discuss the contribution of rituals and ceremonies to the development of drama in Europe and Africa.
2. Assess the contribution of storytelling and oral traditions to the origin and development of drama.
3. What impact did the Renaissance have on the revival and transformation of drama in Europe, particularly with the emergence of Shakespearean theatre?
4. Discuss how the Enlightenment period shaped the themes, styles, and purposes of drama, particularly in relation to reason, morality, and societal critique.
5. Explain how the globalisation of theatre and the exchange of ideas across cultures influenced the development of drama in different regions of the world.
6. Use mimetic theory to explain how social, political, and technological aspects of life are reflected in a literary work of your choice.

Chapter Three: The Origin and Development of African Literature in English

Introduction

Understanding the origin and development of African literature in English is important as it familiarises learners with the fabric of traditions and conventions of African literature. It also enhances the understanding of various voices, and socio-political, economic, and cultural realities. Moreover, it enables one to understand the expectations from the continent's diverse societies that have shaped the body of African literature in English over time. In this chapter, you will learn the relationship between African oral traditions, Western literary conventions and African literature in English. You will also discuss the contribution of African authors to the development of African literature in English and explore features of pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial African literature using selected literary texts. The competencies developed will enable you to conceptualise and analyse the origin of African literature in English and differentiate it from literary traditions of other continents.

The usefulness of African oral literature in the absence of literacy.

African Oral Traditions

Activity 3.1

Use online or library materials to answer the following questions:

1. Explain the concept of African oral traditions.
2. Discuss characteristics of different African oral traditions materials.
3. Explain the characteristics of African oral traditions.

Activity 3.2

Read the following story and answer the questions that follow.

The Man Who Never Lied

Once upon a time there lived a very wise man who never, ever lied. His name was Mamad. Mamad was famous all over the land, far and wide, for his reputation of always telling the truth. The king heard about Mamad and ordered his subjects to bring him to the palace. He looked at the wise man and asked:

"Mamad, is it true, that you have never lied?"

"It's true."

"And you will never lie in your life?"

"I will never lie in my life."

"Okay, tell the truth, but be careful! Lies are cunning! They get on your tongue easily."

Several days passed and the king called Mamad once again. The king was determined to trick Mamad into lying. With a big crowd gathered all around, the king talked with Mamad as he prepared to go hunting. With one foot in his horse's stirrup, he ordered Mamad: "Go to my summer palace and tell the queen I will be with her for lunch. Tell her to prepare a big feast. You will have lunch with me then." Mamad bowed down to the king and then set off to find the queen. The king laughed and said: "We won't go hunting and now Mamad will lie to the queen. Tomorrow we will laugh on his behalf." But the wise Mamad went to the palace and said: "Maybe you should prepare a big feast for lunch tomorrow, and maybe you shouldn't. Maybe the king will come by noon, and maybe he won't." "Tell me will he come, or won't he?" asked the queen. "I don't know whether he got on his horse or whether he put his left foot on the ground after I left." Everybody waited for the king. He came the next day and said to the queen: "The wise Mamad, who never lies, lied to you yesterday." But the queen told him about the words of Mamad. The king realized that the wise man never lies, and says only that, which he saw with his own eyes.

Source: Adopted from https://anikerfoundation.org/african-folktale-the-man-who-never-lied

Questions

1. Explain the central conflict in the story.
2. Explain several characteristics of oral tradition exhibited in the story.
3. Analyse the values or moral lessons obtained from the story.

Activity 3.3

Collect at least ten proverbs from online or library materials and answer the following questions:

1. Explain the knowledge and wisdom embedded in each of the proverbs.
2. Proverbs often use grammatical and rhetorical devices to make them impactful and memorable. Discuss this statement with examples from the proverbs based on the following aspects:
   • (a) Alliteration
   • (b) Rhyme and parallel structure
   • (c) Repetition of keywords or phrases
   • (d) Strong imagery

Activity 3.4

Read the following extract from The Legend of the Queen of Sheba and answer the questions that follow.

HOW KING SOLOMON BEGAT KING MENELIK.

1. King Menelik's mother was a Tigre girl named Etiye-Azëb. And [in her days] the Tigre people were worshipping a dragon, and the sacrifice which they brought [to him] was the following: each man among them gave in turn his first-born daughter and an entalam of mead and an entalam of milk to the dragon. 2. Now when the turn of Etiye-Azëb's parents came, they tied her to a tree for the dragon. And to the place where she was tied to the tree came seven saints and seated themselves there in the shade. 3. And while they were sitting there in the shade, she began to weep, and one of her tears fell upon them. And when [this tear] had fallen upon them, they looked up and beheld her tied there, and they asked her saying: "What art thou? Art thou Mary or a human being?" 4. And she answered them: "I am a human being." They said to her: "And why art thou bound here?"

Source: Adapted from Littman, E. (1909). Bibliotheca Abessinese. Studies Concerning the Language, Literature and History of Abyssinians. R.J Brill.

Questions

1. Who are the characters in the extract?
2. Identify any characteristics of an oral tradition in the extract.
3. To which class of legends do you think The Legend of the Queen of Sheba belongs? Give reasons for your answer.

Takeaways

Before the coming of whites, the continent of Africa had its oral traditions, a form of communication through which knowledge, art, ideas and cultural materials are generated, received, preserved, and transmitted from one generation to another through speech or song. In the early 20th century, the oral tradition theory emerged to guide the study of this literary tradition popularised by Kenneth Bailey. Based on this theory, oral literature is characterised by additive thought and expressions, orality, aggregative thinking (formula-driven), repetition, flexibility and variation, dynamism, and mnemonic devices for memory. Thus, the current African literature in English is rooted in the interaction between African oral literature and Western literary traditions (oral-literacy interaction). They include folktales, proverbs, riddles, tongue-twisters, fairy tales, legends, myths, epics, songs, oral poems, charms, prayers, and dances.

Western Literary Conventions

Activity 3.5

Read various online or library materials and explain the concept of Western literary conventions.

Takeaways

Western literary traditions, or European literary traditions, are conventions of Western culture or European civilisations. These literary traditions have a significant influence on the literature, prose, drama and poetry of Western and European countries. Due to colonialism, their influence has extended to African literature.

Ancient Greek and Latin Literature

Activity 3.6

Read the extract from the epic "The Iliad" by Homer and answer the questions that follow.

THE TRIAL OF THE ARMY, AND CATALOGUE OF THE FORCES

Jupiter, in pursuance of the request of Thetis, sends a deceitful vision to Agamemnon, persuading him to lead the army to battle, in order to make the Greeks sensible of their want of Achilles. The general, who is deluded with the hopes of taking Troy without his assistance, but fears the army was discouraged by his absence, and the late plague, as well as by the length of time, contrives to make trial of their disposition by a stratagem. He first communicates his design to the princes in council, that he would propose a return to the soldiers, and that they should put a stop to them if the proposal was embraced. Then he assembles the whole host, and upon moving for a return to Greece, they unanimously agree to it, and run to prepare the ships. They are detained by the management of Ulysses, who chastises the insolence of Thersites. The assembly is recalled, several speeches made on the occasion, and at length the advice of Nestor followed, which was to make a general muster of the troops, and to divide them into their several nations, before they proceeded to battle. This gives occasion to the poet to enumerate all the forces of the Greeks and Trojans, and in a large catalogue.

The time employed in this book consists not entirely of one day. The scene lies in the Grecian camp, and upon the sea-shore; towards the end it removes to Troy.

Now pleasing sleep had seal'd each mortal eye,
Stretch'd in the tents the Grecian leaders lie:
The immortals slumber'd on their thrones above;
All, but the ever-wakeful eyes of Jove.
To honour Thetis' son he bends his care,
And plunge the Greeks in all the woes of war:
Then bids an empty phantom rise to sight,
And thus commands the vision of the night.

"Fly hence, deluding Dream! and light as air,
To Agamemnon's ample tent repair.
Bid him in arms draw forth the embattled train,
Lead all his Grecians to the dusty plain.
Declare, e'en now 'tis given him to destroy
The lofty towers of wide-extended Troy.

Source: Adopted from Homer. (1998). The Iliad. Trans. Robert Fagles. Penguin Books.

Questions

1. What is the extract about?
2. What is the socio-economic and political context of the extract?
3. Identify the specific features that qualify the epic to belong to classical ancient Greek literature.

Takeaways

Ancient Greek Literature

This is the body of writings in the Greek language whose history extends from the 1st millennium BC to the present day. We can divide the history of ancient Greek literature into three periods: Archaic (lasts before the end of the 6th century BC), Classical (5th and 4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic and Greco-Roman (3rd century BC onward). The famous writers of the classical ancient Greek literature were Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Sophocles is famous for his tragedies about Oedipus, particularly Oedipus the King and Antigone; Euripides is known for Bacchae and Cyclops while Aeschylus wrote The Persians and Prometheus Bound.

Ancient Latin Literature

This literary tradition began and developed through translation from Greek. Latin authors used Greek sources to create their new form of literature around the 3rd century BC. Latin literature includes essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings written in the Latin language.

Medieval Literature

Activity 3.7

Read the extract and answer the questions that follow.

GRENDEL THE MURDERER

Grendel attacks the sleeping heroes
When the sun was sunken, he set out to visit
The lofty hall-building, how the Ring-Danes had used it
For beds and benches when the banquet was over.
Then he found there reposing many a noble

Asleep after supper; sorrow the heroes,
Misery knew not. The monster of evil
Greedy and cruel tarried but little,
He drags off thirty of them, and devours them
Fell and frantic, and forced from their slumbers
Thirty of thanemen; thence he departed

Leaping and laughing, his lair to return to,
With surfeit of slaughter sallying homeward.
In the dusk of the dawning, as the day was just breaking,
Was Grendel's prowess revealed to the warriors:
A cry of agony goes up, when Grendel's horrible deed is fully realized.
Then, his meal-taking finished, a moan was uplifted,

Source: Adapted from Beowulf An Anglo-Saxon Epic Poem Translated From The Heyne-Socin Text By Lesslie Hall. D. C. Heath & Co.

Questions

1. Discuss the traits of characters in the extract.
2. What are the themes portrayed in the literary piece?
3. Discuss the socio-economic and political context in which the extract was written.
4. Identify the specific features of Middle Ages Literature found in the extract.

Takeaways

The Medieval period extends from the 5th to the 15th century. This period was also called the Middle or Dark Ages because scholars believed it was between two important periods: the Classical Period and the Renaissance. During this period, covering ca. 450-1450, Britain saw many invasions, unrests, battles and changes that shaped the country into a powerful nation. The medieval period is long and can be divided into three lesser periods: the Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Norman, and Middle-English periods. The Western countries produced many verses and prose during this period, but many of these texts were anonymous. Medieval Europe became the cradle of new developing genres. It brought ballads, allegorical poetry, Latin hymns, sacred songs, lullabies, fabliaux, debates, court epics, popular epics, beast epics, tale cycles, chivalric romances, mystery plays, miracle plays, and morality plays. As many of these literary types suggest, a great deal of medieval literature is folk literature, and it is linkable to the oral traditions of bards, jongleurs, and troubadours.

Renaissance Literature

Activity 3.8

Read the following poem and answer the questions that follow.

Amoretti XXX: My love is like to ice and I to fire

My love is like to ice, and I to fire:
How comes it then that this her cold so great
Is not dissolved through my so hot desire,
But harder grows the more I her entreat?
Or how comes it that my exceeding heat
Is not allayed by her heart-frozen cold,
But that I burn much more in boiling sweat,
And feel my flames augmented manifold?
What more miraculous thing may be told,

That fire, which all things melts, should harden ice,
And ice, which is congeal'd with senseless cold,
Should kindle fire by wonderful device?
Such is the power of love in gentle mind,
That it can alter all the course of kind.

Edmund Spenser

Questions

1. Explain the characteristics of the Renaissance that are evident in the extract.
2. Discuss the socio-economic and political context in which the text was written.

Takeaways

Renaissance is a French word denoting "rebirth." It was a movement developed in Italy in the 14th century and spread throughout Europe, reaching its peak in the 16th century. It came after the medieval era, when European art and literature were revived under the influence of classical models. The characteristics of the Renaissance era were humanism, nationalism and a new approach to life. The Renaissance time made people excited about art, buildings, stories, and learning new things. People started using their own languages more and exploring science. They also rediscovered old Greek and Roman knowledge. This discovery happened because more Europeans could read about ancient times. When Constantinople fell in 1453, many Greek and Roman scholars moved to Europe, making people even more interested in the past. Shakespeare was a famous writer during this time.

Neo-classical Literature

Neo-classicism was a literary and artistic movement from approximately the early 1600s until the late 1700s. It was prevalent across Europe, with some of the most prominent literary trends occurring in England. It focused on imitating aspects of Ancient Greek and Roman art and the literature found in the original Ancient Greek and Roman texts called classical texts. Young artists and writers became increasingly more aware of the artistic cultures of Ancient Greece and Rome and then used them in their art. Neo-classicism differed from the previous Renaissance period as it was against too much use of individualism and imagination in literature. It focused on more universal issues and portrayed humans as much more nuanced and flawed. Neo-classic texts have strict formal order and structure; they focus on and discuss social issues. Neo-classical texts considered humans to be flawed. Thus, in neo-classical texts, characters are flawed and nuanced, just as capable of doing badly as doing good. Ancient Greek and Roman texts thematically focused heavily on displaying logical and sensible viewpoints. This assertion means texts rationalised things by focusing on what is known rather than not.

African Authors and African Literature in English

Activity 3.18

1. Read various online or library materials and collect information about influential African literary authors, genres they write and examples of their renowned texts.
2. Summarise their biographies.

Takeaways

Different scholars explain African literature as a body of traditional oral and written literature(s) in African languages and texts written by Africans in European languages. African literature written in European languages dates primarily from the 20th century onward. It was born primarily in the education systems imposed by colonialism, with models drawn from Europe. However, the African oral traditions exerted their influence on this literature. Some of the African writers across time include Chinua Achebe, Christopher Okigbo, Wole Soyinka, Kofi Awoonor, Ngugi wa Thiongo, Peter Abrahams, Nurrudin Farah, David Rubadiri, Dennis Brutus, Severine Ndunguru, Flora Nwapa, Grace Ogot, Ama Ata Aidoo, Martha Myungi and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie. These writers have influenced the literary landscape of Africa, and their outstanding texts have also brought them international acclaim.

The Depiction of Pre-colonial Africa in Pre-colonial and Modern African Literature

Activity 3.19

1. Read three pre-colonial literary texts written by Africans.
2. Investigate the themes portrayed in the three literary texts.
3. Write short notes on the themes appearing in all three literary texts.

Takeaways

The development of African literature has undergone several stages. The first one was pre-colonial African literature. Pre-colonial African literature is the body of literature produced during and about pre-colonial Africa. This literature includes both oral literature (including prose, short formulaic expressions and poetry) and written narratives. Pre-colonial written literature is also concerned with slave narratives dating from the Atlantic slave trade between the 15th and 19th centuries. Under this period, African literature is said to have gained roots in the writings of slaves who had regained their freedom. Some slaves used their literature to fight back against slavery. They, therefore, published stories expressing their horrific experiences in the yoke of slavery. More so, African literary writings before colonialism are often regarded to include works produced before the advent of colonisation in Africa. Primarily, these works described Africans' social, political, and economic lives and celebrated their rich and diversified cultures. Authors of this time include Juan Latino, Jacobus Elisa, Phillis Wheatley and Ignatus Sanchos.

When talking about African literature, early European literary texts that depicted Africans, such as Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness and H-Rider Haggard's King Solomon's Mines, cannot be ignored. These texts depicted pre-colonial Africa as a dark continent and its inhabitants uncivilised.

Although it is set in contemporary times, modern African literature also depicts pre-colonial Africa. Also, despite being modern, such literature uses African oral literature. This oeuvre covers all oral literature materials collected and published by modern African writers. Such texts include Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart and No Longer at Ease, Flora Nwapa's Efuru, Grace Ogot's The Promised Land and Elechi Amadi's The Great Ponds.

Exercise 13

1. With reference to one reading, explain the relevance of pre-colonial literature to modern society.
2. Discuss the contribution of pre-colonial African literature and its writers to the development of modern African literature in English.

Colonial African Literature

Activity 3.21

Read various online sources and explain the following concepts in relation to African colonial literature:

1. Exploitation
2. Slavery
3. Oppression
4. Segregation
5. Alienation
6. Nationalism

Takeaways

The literary genres that flourished during the colonial period were poetry, play, and the novel. Colonialism and cultural exchange greatly influenced these genres. Notably, the contact between European colonial powers and Africans created cultural contacts during the colonial era, leading to the exchange of literary ideas and practices. Therefore, literary conventions from the two cultures were introduced into either of the communities through this contact. The marriage between Western and African literary conventions, such as the use of European languages and African literary traditions, enabled literary artists to produce great literary texts. In those texts, Europeans described the land and the people they conquered and occupied, as well as Africa and Africans, from their perspective. On the other hand, Africans who had been exposed to Western languages began to write in those tongues and by employing other Western literary conventions. They mainly wrote to air their experiences and grievances from colonial domination.

The colonial literature written by the colonised utilised the colonial language and literary techniques influenced by European and indigenous traditions, exploring themes related to colonisation, imperialism, and cultural clashes. It depicted the experiences of colonisers and colonised peoples, reflected power dynamics and hierarchies in colonial societies and criticised colonialism and its impact on individuals and societies.

Post-colonial African Literature

Activity 3.23

1. With evidence, discuss similar themes portrayed in three selected post-colonial literary texts.
2. Compare how the three literary texts handle critical issues related to post-colonialism.

Takeaways

Post-colonial African Literature

Post-colonial African literature refers to writings produced in the aftermath of colonialism. Most of this literature oeuvre was written by African authors in their home countries or diaspora. Post-colonial literature deals with colonial experience, decolonisation issues and the disillusionment of independent Africa. Postcolonial literature development is said to have followed the following three phases:

Mimicry and Ambivalence

This phase features writers imitating colonisers' writing styles while also expressing feelings towards colonial rule. Writers in this phase are concerned with issues of identity, cultural hybridity, and the legacy of colonialism.

Nationalism and Resistance

This phase is introduced by writers who actively engage with themes of nationalism, resistance, and decolonisation to reclaim their cultural heritage, challenge colonial narratives, and affirm their independence.

Globalisation and Hybridity

This phase mainly harbours current literary writings that explore the impact of globalisation, migration, and diaspora on postcolonial societies. Writers in this phase often focus on issues of displacement, identities, and the complexities of living in a globalised world.

Postcolonial African literature is represented in short stories, poems, novels, essays, and plays. Examples of Postcolonial literary texts include Tayeb Salih's Season of Migration to the North (1966), Ayi Kwei Armah's The Beautiful Ones Are Not Yet Born (1969), Wole Soyinka's A Play of Giant (1984), Ngugi wa Thiong'o's A Grain of Wheat (1967) and Matigari (1986) Tsitsi Dangarembga's Nervous Conditions (1988) as well as Chinua Achebe's A Man of the People, to mention a few.

Most of the post-colonial literature(s) are devoted to the expression of disillusionment with independent Africa, racism, identity, freedom/independence, change/transformation, colonialism, oppression and nationalism, reformation of identity, neo-colonialism, civil war, and dictatorship.

Assessment Questions

1. Using one reading done in class, discuss how disillusionment is a common theme in Post-colonial Africa.
2. With reference to a story about your community (folktale, fairy-tale, legend, or fable) answer the following questions.
   • a) What is the setting of this story?
   • b) Discuss the social events reflected in the narrative.
3. Compare and contrast between European literary traditions and African literary traditions based on their themes and characters.
4. How would you agree that Western literary traditions have influenced modern African literature?
5. How do modern African writers navigate the tension between embracing Western literary forms and structures while also striving to maintain the integrity of their cultural identities and storytelling traditions?
6. African literature in English is a product of twin heritage. Discuss.

Chapter Four: Analysis of the Relationship Between Folklore and Written Literature

Introduction

Various forms of folkloric materials have been incorporated into written literature. Thus, your understanding of written literature will partly depend on your knowledge of these materials. In this chapter, you will learn about material culture, social folk customs, and performing folk arts. You will also identify and appreciate folkloric materials embedded in written texts and examine the relationship between folklore and written literature. The competencies developed will enable you to identify and analyse genres and sub-genres of folklore as well as the relationship between folklore and written literature.

The purpose of transferring oral literature across generations within an ethnic group.

Material Culture

Activity 4.1

a) Read various online or library materials. Then, explain the following concepts:

1. Artefact
2. Folk costume
3. Folk cookery
4. Folk architecture
5. Folk crafts
6. Folk painting
7. Folk sculpture
8. Folk textiles

b) In your own words, describe the concept of material culture.

Takeaways

Material Culture

Material culture refers to physical objects, resources, and places that define a culture, reflecting its members' behaviours and perceptions. It is manifested in artefacts, crafts, folk architecture, folk costumes, and folk cuisine, representing a community's beliefs, values, thoughts, and expectations.

Artefacts

Artefacts are objects shaped by humans, including decorative arts like textiles, paintings and sculptures. They are associated with traditions marking historical and cultural contexts.

Crafts

Crafts are skilled activities such as pottery and landscaping that reveal community cultural practices.

Architecture

Architecture reflects cultural preferences in building appearance, techniques, and sites, showcasing distinct styles among ethnic communities and cultural groups.

Folk Costumes

Folk costumes are attires worn by specific communities. They vary in style, materials, and decoration, thus signifying identity, social status, and historical influences.

Folk Cookery

Folk cookery comprises recipes and cooking customs passed down through generations, rooted in local ingredients and methods.

Understanding material culture aids in recognising cultural identities and dynamics, tracing historical changes, and analysing social relationships within communities. One gains a deeper appreciation for the interconnectedness of culture, identity, and history by examining physical objects and practices.

As a young aspiring literary critic and upcoming author, it is important to know that authors borrow a lot from material culture to compose their texts. The references to material culture in the literature provide insight into culinary heritage, cultural diversity, and character traits which reflect characters' values, backgrounds, and societal norms.

Social Folk Customs

Activity 4.2

a) Read various online or library materials and, with examples, explain the following concepts:

1. Folk celebration
2. Folk festival
3. Folk recreation
4. Folk games
5. Folk medicine
6. Folk religion

b) In your own words, describe the concept of social folk customs.

Takeaways

Social Folk Customs

Social folk customs are patterns of behaviour accepted by society, rooted in communal interactions and meaningful group activities. These customs include festivals, recreation and games, folk medicine, and folk religion, each playing a significant role in cultural expression and community cohesion.

Festivals

Festivals are social gatherings marking culturally significant events or commemorating historical figures or ancestors.

Recreation and Games

Recreation and games are activities pursued for enjoyment, varying among social groups and geographic locations. A good example of traditional game in Tanzania is bao.

Folk Medicine

Folk medicine encompasses traditional healing practices based on folk beliefs, involving natural or herbal remedies and magical religious rituals.

Folk Religion

Folk religion consists of unique religious practices specific to ethnic or cultural groups, passed down orally and encompassing cosmology, customs, and symbolism. While Western influences have impacted traditional African beliefs, folk religion remains vital to cultural identity.

Literary texts can employ folk religion to develop characters, themes, and settings. Folk medicine adds depth and authenticity to narratives, weaving culture, spirituality, and healing traditions into the story. Even so, social folk customs serve as symbolic markers of culture and tradition, driving plot and character development in literature while expressing community spirit and belonging.

Performing Folk Arts

Activity 4.3

a) Read various online or library materials and with examples explain the following concepts:

1. Folk drama
2. Folk music
3. Folk dance

b) In your own words, describe the concept of performing folk arts.

Takeaways

Performing Folk Arts

Performing folk arts are culturally meaningful presentations by individuals or groups. When people perform folk arts, they essentially showcase cultural symbols and expressions of a community, highlighting human creativity within cultural heritage. These arts encompass various forms like folk drama, music and dances, which enrich cultural identity and tradition.

Usually, one performs folk arts based on local traditions and history, featuring characters with unique costumes, such as wearing masks to portray animals or humans. Therefore, performing folk arts is the intense manifestation of culture, tradition, and identity. Some literary authors incorporate folk art in their works to enrich their art of storytelling, depict cultural experiences and deepen readers' understanding of characters, civilizations, and cultures beyond mere amusement.

Functions and Preservation of Folklore

Activity 4.4

Read online or library materials on folklore and then:

1. Summarise the functions of folklore.
2. Explain ways of preserving folklore.

Takeaways

Functions of Folklore

There are various functions of folklore, including entertainment, cultural validation, education, and cultural stabilisation. This means that folklore offers both entertainment and educational value. It breaks the monotony of daily life and explains cultural rituals, traditions, and social structures. Stories like ogre tales, lullabies, and fables pass down knowledge, values, and manners to younger generations. By preserving customs and norms, folklore helps to maintain cultural stability and encourages adherence to established traditions.

Folklore Preservation

Preserving folklore is crucial in the face of its commodification, which threatens its longevity and authenticity. Folklorists employ various preservation strategies, recognizing the multifaceted nature of the task to ensure folklore's validity and survival.

One approach involves documenting folklore through written records, audio recordings, videos, and digital archives to ensure its preservation for future generations. Fostering intergenerational transmission within communities through storytelling, music, and dance workshops promotes continuity and cultural vitality.

Government support is morally and materially essential for local cultural initiatives, festivals, and educational programs to raise awareness and appreciation of folklore. Scholarly research, artistic interpretation, and revitalisation efforts further contribute to preservation. All these efforts require ongoing commitments and collaborations.

Literary artists play a significant role in folklore preservation by incorporating folkloric materials into their original texts. Written texts thus serve as repositories for these rich traditions and grant them permanence through literature.

Folklore in the Community

Activity 4.5

1. Discuss the various forms of social folk customs in your community.
2. Provide an example for each form of social folk custom in the community.
3. How do social folk customs differ from one ethnic community to another?

Activity 4.6

1. Discuss the various forms of performing folk art available in your ethnic community.
2. Provide an example of each folk art form performed in your ethnic community.
3. Explain the meaning attached to each form of performing folk art.

Activity 4.7

1. Discuss the various forms of material culture available in your ethnic community.
2. Provide an example of each form of material culture available in your ethnic community.
3. Explain the meaning attached to each form of material culture.

Folklore in Written Literature

Activity 4.8

Read a literary text and answer the following questions:

1. Identify folkloric materials included in the text.
2. Explain how folkloric materials affect the delivery of the text's central idea.
3. Sort out all the forms of folklore and write them under their correct headings in the following table:

Material Culture	Social Folk Customs	Performing Folk Arts

Takeaways

Folklore and Written Literature Relationship

Folklore and written literature share a lively connection. They influence each other in meaningful ways. Folklore is deeply rooted in society's wisdom and traditions. It inspires written literature, and shapes cultural norms and identity. Written literature incorporates folkloric elements, adding depth and cultural richness.

While folk literature is passed down orally and reflects communal knowledge, written literature is crafted by individuals mirrors cultural contexts. Authors draw from communal wisdom to infuse their work with myths, proverbs, and folk tales and enrich them with cultural significance.

When themes and motifs from folklore are included in written literature, they preserve cultural heritage and make folklore timeless. Written texts also serve as a repository for folkloric materials. They allow diverse audiences to experience the culture of other communities.

Moreover, written literature preserves and evolves oral traditions and maintains their essence. This symbiotic relationship ensures the continuity and relevance of folklore in written works.

Written literature showcases cultural diversity and human experiences, blending folkloric elements with creative expression to represent culture, identity, and society. In Things Fall Apart, for example, Achebe incorporates folk tales, folk costumes, wrestling, and music for these purposes.

Assessment Questions

Assessment Questions

1. With examples, differentiate the following concepts:
   • a) Herbal from magical religious medicines
   • b) Folk music from folk dance
   • c) Initiation from wedding ceremonies
   • d) Pottery from monument
2. With examples from written literary text read in class, examine the author's manipulation of folkloric materials in delivering the intended message.
3. Drawing examples of one literary text, discuss the way written literature serves as a warehouse of folklore.
4. Discuss the ways in which authors use folkloric materials to support characterisation. Use any literary text to support your discussion.
5. With examples from a literary text read in class, examine how material culture serves as a symbolic feature in expressing cultural experiences.
6. Examine the link between drama and folk performance using a play of your choice.
7. Use the knowledge of social folk customs to examine the way cultural context determines the identity of the people.
8. Use any literary text read in class to examine how folklore materials are employed as tools for entertainment.
9. Use any literary text to evaluate the way folkloric materials included in the text expose or judge characters' moral traits.
10. Using any literary text read in class, discuss how authors employ folkloric materials to evoke the cultural setting in which the events and actions occur.

Examples of Folkloric Materials in Literature

Folklore Type	Examples in Literature	Purpose/Function
Proverbs	Chinua Achebe's use of Igbo proverbs in Things Fall Apart	Convey wisdom, cultural values, and character traits
Folk Tales	Tortoise stories in African literature	Teach moral lessons and entertain
Folk Songs	Work songs in Ngugi wa Thiong'o's works	Express collective experiences and emotions
Rituals	Wedding ceremonies in various African novels	Establish cultural authenticity and social norms
Traditional Costumes	Descriptions of cultural attire in literature	Signify identity, status, and cultural pride

Exercise: Folklore Analysis

Select a literary text from your syllabus and complete the following tasks:

1. Identify at least five different folkloric elements in the text.
2. Classify each element as material culture, social folk custom, or performing folk art.
3. Analyze how each folkloric element contributes to:
   • Character development
   • Theme exploration
   • Cultural representation
   • Plot advancement
4. Discuss how the inclusion of folklore enhances the literary value of the text.
5. Suggest how the text would be different without these folkloric elements.

Chapter Five: In-depth Understanding of Elements of Literature

Introduction

Literary elements are the most fundamental parts of a story. They are also referred to as building blocks of any story. These elements help readers keep up with the story and know what is going on. In this chapter, you will learn about elements of form and content. Moreover, you will learn the significance of each element in a literary text and show the relationship between form and content. The competencies developed will enable you to read, interpret, analyse, and compose literary texts.

The existence of literary works in the absence of elements of literature.

Elements of Literature

Activity 5.1

a) Present the elements of literature diagrammatically by filling in the given spaces.

Elements of Literature

Form

Content

Fill in the specific elements under each category

b) Write short notes on each of the elements you have filled in the diagram.

Elements of Form

Setting

Activity 5.2

Read a literary text and answer the following questions:

1. When was the text written? How did you know?
2. At what times of the day do most of the story events unfold? How did the text let you know?
3. What is the physical location of things presented in the text? How are they made to manifest?
4. Where do the characters' interactions take place?
5. How do the geographical locations influence your understanding of events and actions in the story?
6. Comment on the story's setting by showing how it affects the understanding of the story.

Plot

Activity 5.3

Read a literary text and respond to the following questions as you analyse its plot.

(i) Exposition

1. When does the story begin?
2. Where does the story begin?
3. What is the name of the protagonist?
4. What are the physical characteristics of the protagonist? What aspects of the text revealed them?
5. Which other characters are portrayed as the story opens?
6. What challenges do the protagonist or other characters face as the story opens? Explain with textual evidence.

(ii) Rising Action

1. What events are in this part of the story?
2. What is the main challenge in the story?
3. How does the challenge develop in the story?
4. Does the antagonist directly or indirectly challenge the protagonist? Explain.
5. How does the main character become more involved in the challenge? Explain with textual evidence.
6. How does the tension between the protagonist and the antagonist build up in the story?
7. Propose any relevant solutions to the conflicts in the story.

(iii) Climax

1. How do the events set the moment of truth in the story?
2. What is the nature of the challenge in the story? How is it creatively depicted?
3. How does the protagonist's weakness contribute to the challenge? How does it affect the course of events in the story?
4. How does the protagonist become fully prepared for the challenge or problem?
5. How does the protagonist's decision predict the end of the story?

(iv) Falling Action

1. Which events come after the climax?
2. Which conflict(s) or challenge(s) is/are the characters trying to settle?
3. What is the weakness of the antagonist?
4. Why does the protagonist win or lose?
5. How does the protagonist's victory affect his/her family, friends, and society?

(v) Resolution/Denouement

1. What is the solution to the conflict/challenge/problem?
2. What lesson(s) do the protagonist and other characters learn?
3. What do readers learn from the story? How is it told?
4. What legacy does the protagonist leave behind? How is it depicted?
5. Are there issues left unresolved in the story? Explain your answer.
6. Is there any potential for a new challenge? Explain your answer.
7. Propose how the unresolved or potentially new challenge/problem can be solved.

Exercise 14

1. Assess how the central conflict drives the plot forward in any text you have read.
2. Discuss how moments of tension, suspense, or reflection affect the reader's experience in any text of your choice.
3. How does the resolution of the plot impact your interpretation of the text?

Character and Characterization

Activity 5.4

Read a literary text and describe the following characters:

1. Those who perform important events that dominate the story from the beginning to the end and the ones who carry the theme and message of the story
2. The one who strongly opposes the protagonist and is admired by the audience
3. Those who do not change their personalities in the course of plot development
4. Those who change in the course of the story
5. Those whom you admire most. Explain the reasons for your admiration.

Exercise 15

1. With examples from a literary text of your choice, discuss the different types of characters.
2. Use one literary text to discuss the source of conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist.
3. Why do you think characters are important in a literary text?
4. Compose a short story that involves dynamic and static characters.

Takeaways: Elements of Form

(i) Setting

Setting in literature refers to the time and place of the story. Time comprises many aspects, such as the character's time of life, time of the day, time of the year, and period of time (past, present and future). Meanwhile, place entails a physical environment such as a building, a room in a building, a country, or perceptual places created through sensory details and descriptions that capture a vivid sense of location in the story's world.

Generally, a setting can also include the social, cultural, and historical context in which the story unfolds. It creates the story's mood for the readers or viewers and gives context to the character's actions, making it easier to understand why the characters behave the way they do.

(ii) Plot

Plot refers to the organised structure of a literary text formed through interrelated actions which are selected and organised by a writer. Actions are interrelated because every action is related to and affects or influences other actions in the story. Thus, a plot refers to a story's logical flow of events. Most plots have three parts: beginning, middle and end. However, a more detailed plot comprises five parts: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action and denouement. Each of the five elements contributes to the development of a story. A plot can be said to be good if it presents a sequence of events, shows a cause-effect relationship among the events, and connects actions and events logically.

Types of Plot Structure

There are several types of plots, including Freytag's triangular, linear, episodic, parallel and flashback plots. Freytag's triangular plot is the most popular type.

Triangular/Dramatic/Linear/Progressive Plot

This type of plot is named after a German playwright, Gustav Freytag, who outlined the five key elements of dramatic structure: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.

Climax

Rising Action

Exposition

Falling Action

Resolution

(iii) Character and Characterization

A character is a person, animal or any figure imagined and created by an author in a literary text to deliver the intended message to the audience. A character's action and situations drive the plot of a story. Thus, through characters, fiction comes alive.

Types of Characters

Protagonist

The main character in a story often considered as "the good guy". He/she drives the plot of the story to a great extent.

Antagonist

A character or force that opposes the protagonist. It can be a single person, a group of people, nature or internal conflict.

Dynamic Character

A character who undergoes some changes in the course of the story. He or she learns a lesson or overcomes challenges.

Static Character

A character who does not change his/her personality throughout the story. He/she does not grow and remains static mentally and physically.

Round Character

A fully developed figure in a story. This character is more realistic and grows to show his/her real complex personality.

Flat Character

A one-dimensional character who is less affected by the environment and undergoes less significant changes in personality.

Elements of Content

Theme

Activity 5.9

Read a literary text and answer the following questions:

1. What are the key issues in the text? How creatively are they presented?
2. Which ideas, thoughts, or patterns are repeated in the story? How creatively are they presented?
3. How do the repeated ideas, thoughts or patterns build up the themes?
4. What is the central/main theme of the text you have read? Provide textual evidence.
5. What are other themes in the story? Give textual evidence.

Conflict

Activity 5.10

Read a literary text and answer the following questions:

1. What does the protagonist strive to achieve in the story?
2. What obstacle does the protagonist come across?
3. How does the protagonist react to these obstacles?
4. How are forms of conflict represented in the story?
5. Which characters are involved in these conflicts?
6. How is the resolution of the central conflict presented?
7. What are the resolutions of the minor conflicts?

Types of Conflict

Intra-personal/Self Conflict

Occurs within a character's mind as he/she has to make choices in relation to problematic situations.

Inter-personal Conflict

Occurs when characters or groups of characters clash with each other.

Social Conflict

Occurs when a character or group gets into conflict with their community; society turns against them.

Environmental Conflict

Happens when characters come into conflict with natural forces like floods or getting lost in forests.

Society Conflict

Occurs when individuals fight against societal norms, which are usually oppressive in nature.

Supernatural Conflict

Occurs when characters fight against superhuman forces, deities or predetermined fate.

Takeaways: Elements of Content

(i) Theme

This is the underlying meaning of a literary work. The theme of a literary text is its view of life and how people behave. It is the primary concern of the author to write a story. The theme synthesises all issues the story presents (generalisation about life). Theme can be indirectly or directly suggested through characters' speech and actions, setting, and other symbolic representations that make up the story.

Discovering themes requires considering:

• The title of the literary text
• Repeated patterns, thoughts, symbols and motifs
• Allusions made throughout the story
• Actions or events in the story and their arrangement
• Lesson the main character learns
• Characters and their characterization
• Types of conflicts portrayed
• Issues that the author supports or opposes

(ii) Conflict

Conflict is the heart of a story. The term refers to a clash/struggle between two opposing forces which drive the story forward. Conflict creates tension and interest, making readers want to know what happens next.

(iii) Message

Message is a two-way communication or statement conveyed from one person or group to another. A text's message is the product of the information and the complete communication system of all human beings. In literature, a message is a big idea or a theme of a story that a writer communicates to the audience.

(iv) Lesson

Literature is known for its various functions in society. A literary text not only provides pleasure but also teaches, encourages, informs and motivates audiences. Therefore, literary texts should be read and analysed for spiritual, moral, cultural, economic, political and social education.

(v) Philosophy

Philosophy is the author's views on existential problems and life's major concerns. It results from his/her reflection on the experiences and problems of everyday living. Philosophy is manifested through analysing and according meaning to the text's setting, plot, characters, style, language and themes.

The Significance of Elements of Literature

Activity 5.14

Read a literary text and analyse the following:

1. The significance of the story's setting
2. The effectiveness of the point of view deployed in the story
3. The significance of language deployed in the text
4. The contribution of the plot to the understanding of the story

Takeaways: Significance of Literary Elements

The elements of literature respond to the story's who, what, where, when, why and how questions. Each of these elements greatly impacts the completeness of the story. Their absence may result in the malformation of the story.

Language

A means through which a writer communicates with the audience. A text earns its literaliness through language, which creates mood and mental picture for readers.

Characters

The entities that participate in events and perform actions in a story. They help in sequencing events and create psychological connections with readers.

Point of View

Determines the position from which the story is narrated and establishes the relationship between audience and narration.

Plot

Presents the story and reveals the protagonist's development and the story's theme. It binds readers with emotional connection.

Setting

Drives the plot forward, shapes characters and provides opportunities for conflicts to happen. It adds important dimension of meaning.

Conflict

Drives a story forward and reveals deeper meaning while highlighting characters' motivations, values, strengths and flaws.

The Interplay Between Form and Content

Activity 5.15

a) Read a literary text and discuss the elements of the narrative based on the following questions:

1. What is the title of the story?
2. How does the title relate to or differ from the content of the story?
3. What lesson do you get from the actions of central characters in the story?
4. How does the setting help you to predict the theme of the story?
5. How do the figures of speech contribute to the meaning or message?

b) Discuss the relationship between form and content of the story.

Takeaways: Form and Content Relationship

Formalists or neo-critics claim that form rules the content. The existence and delivery of the content relies on a well-crafted form. Thus, to get a text's theme, one should examine devices such as metre, rhyme scheme, rhythm, figures of speech, syntax, tone, motifs, voice, setting, character, styles, structure, coherence, emphasis, diction, images, sounds, phrases, punctuation, words and other conventions.

Conversely, non-formalists view the relationship between form and content as cause and effect, similar to the events in a literary text. In this relationship, the content is the cause, and form is the effect; the content is the reason the writer writes, and the form is the way the writer presents the idea.

Form creates the shape of a literary text, influencing the reader's perception of the content. For example, using imagery adds depth and meaning to the literary text. Other literary forms, such as scenes and acts in a play, help to create dramatic tension on the reader's part. The setting and contexts provide the background for understanding a story's events and actions and influence the overall atmosphere of a literary text.

Key Insight: Form without content is nothing, and content without form is unsighted. (Emmanuel Kant)

Assessment Questions

1. Do you think it is important for you to perceive the message as it was intended by the author? Give reasons.
2. Using one literary text, relate how characters in stories reflect or challenge societal norms or expectations in real-life situations.
3. Pick any literary text and write an essay about how that text challenges or reinforces the existing beliefs or attitudes in society.
4. With reference to one text, explain the way authors' philosophy shape the way they perceive things in life.
5. How will you help your friend identify the author's philosophy in a selected text?
6. "There is a story without a plot, but there is no story without characters." Discuss this statement with reference to one reading.
7. Discuss the relevance of one literary text you have read to your real-life experience.
8. With reference to one literary text, how do characters in a story develop to enhance themes?
9. With reference to one literary text, explain how conflicts in a story develop to enhance themes.
10. Compare and contrast literary language with ordinary language.

Chapter Six: Analysis of Literary Criticism Theories

Introduction

Literary criticism entails critical reading, interpretation, analysis, and judgement of a literary text. Critics do so as they engage critically with literary writings. In this chapter, you will learn the four traditional critical theories and six modern literary theories used in literary criticism. You will also learn their importance in critiquing selected literary texts. The competencies developed will enable you to critique various literary texts.

How views, perspectives and consciousness developed from reading, interpreting and analysing literary works can be theoretically analysed or measured.

Traditional Critical Theories

Four traditional critical theories are the basis for different approaches, perspectives, and tools for understanding the nature of literature as an art. The modern literary theories you will study in this chapter manifest these traditional critical theories.

Mimetic Theory

Activity 6.1

a) Read various online or library materials about mimetic theory.

b) Describe the basic assumptions of mimetic theory.

Takeaways

The word "mimetic" comes from the Greek word mimesis, which means representation or imitation. In literary criticism, mimetic theory postulates that a literary text imitates life. Imitation is used to describe a literary representation that draws from real life. In drama, for example, imitation is seen through the representation or performance of life-like events on the stage. As characters engage in conversation through dialogue, they reveal a picture of an actual encounter. In contrast, the costumes and the roles undertaken by the characters and the settings reflect that the origin of drama is the imitation of real life or the environment.

Mimetic theory holds the view that an artist mimics certain features of the world's physical objects. That is, any artistic creation, whether it is a literary text or not, is a representation of the observable objects in the real world. According to the theory, every literary work mimics reality as it is perceived by the outside world.

Key Figures: Aristotle and Plato

Plato's View: Earthly things are merely types or copies of the ideal forms and that only ideals are real and true. Based on this view, Plato regarded mimesis as a mere imitation or representation of ideal forms and not a creative expression.

Aristotle's View: Counter-argued his teacher's view by pointing out that imitation is an act of imaginative creation by which the poet draws his/her materials from the real world and makes something new out of it. He asserts that art imitates not the mere shadow of things but the ideal reality embodied in the very object of the world.

Activity 6.2

Read the following extract and answer the questions that follow.

Plato's Allegory of the Cave

Socrates: And now, I said, let me show in a figure how far our nature is enlightened or unenlightened: Behold! Human beings living in an underground den, which has a mouth open towards the light and reaching all along the den; here they have been from their childhood, and have their legs and necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see before them, being prevented by the chains from turning round their heads. Above and behind them a fire is blazing at a distance, and between the fire and the prisoners there is a raised way; and you will see, if you look, a low wall built along the way, like the screen which marionette players have in front of them, over which they show the puppets.

Glaucon: I see.

Socrates: The low wall, and the moving figures of which the shadows are seen on the opposite wall of the den. And do you see, I said, men passing along the wall carrying all sorts of vessels, and statues and figures of animals made of wood and stone and various materials, which appear over the wall? Some of them are talking, others silent.

Source: Adopted from Plato's Republic

Questions

1. How do the following images from the text represent the role of ideology in human realities?
   • a) Cave
   • b) Fire
   • c) Daylight
   • d) The wall
   • e) The shadow
2. How do the assumptions of mimetic theory manifest in the story above?
3. Referring to the text, discuss the view that art merely imitates actual worldly reality.
4. Use online or library materials to read and evaluate Plato and Aristotle's arguments on imitation in art.

Pragmatic Theory

Activity 6.3

a) Read various online or library materials about pragmatic theory.

b) Examine the basic assumptions of pragmatic theory.

Takeaways

Pragmatic theory dates back from pragmatism, a philosophical movement of the 1870s. Recently, the theory is associated with the works of Philip Sidney, Jeremy Bentham, and Stanley Fish. The theory focuses on the relationship between a literary text and the reader. It considers the practical effects of reading a literary text on the reader. It assumes that a literary text's creation and interpretation are social actions in which the text's producers, authors, and the readers, are actively engaged. As a result, literary texts inform or educate readers, entertain them or influence their thoughts and feelings about what they depict.

Key Figures: Philip Sidney, Jeremy Bentham, Stanley Fish

Expressive Theory

Activity 6.5

a) Read various online or library materials on expressive theory.

b) Examine the basic assumptions of expressive theory.

Takeaways

Expressive theory is said to have begun in the 1800s following the writings of Longinus, Bacon, Wordsworth, and, later, the radical Romantics of the 1830s. According to this theory, a work of art is essentially an artist's internal made external. It is a revelation of a creative process that operates under the influence of the artist's feelings, thoughts and perceptions. Thus, from 1800 to 1900, the task of the artists, specifically those of England and Germany, was to express to the world (readers) their inner genius (internal life or inner life or inner feelings and thoughts).

Through this theory, scholars highlighted the difference between pre-modern and modern theories of imagination. The mimetic paradigm notion that imagination functions as a mirror reflecting some external realities was replaced by the productive paradigm notion that imagination means the author projects his own internally generated light onto things. Due to this notion, the "mirror," the conventional symbol for the artist, changed to the "lamp". Generally, the work of art seeks to reveal what the author feels or the view of the writer with regard to the external world. Therefore, a literary text results from the author's need to express their concerns orally or in writing.

Key Figures: Longinus, Bacon, Wordsworth

Objective Theory

Activity 6.7

a) Read various online or library materials about objective theory.

b) Examine the basic assumptions of objective theory.

Takeaways

The objective theory dates back to the late 18th century and early 19th century. Unlike the other three primary or traditional theories, objective orientation principally disassociates art from all the external points of reference (audience and nature). It looks at a work of art as a self-sufficient entity ingrained in its internal relations and which, in principle, has to be judged by criteria integral to its own mode of being.

According to this idea, the work of art is an agent that creates an effect on the audience through its internal elements (plot, character, thought, diction/language, melody, and spectacle). These elements are designed in such a way that they work together in perfect unison to produce meaning. The theory also aligns with T.S Eliot's view that when we analyse poetry, we must consider it primarily as poetry and not another thing. It should not mean but be.

Scholars around the world have expanded this theory. For example, the Chicago Neo-Aristotelians and John Crew Ransom are known for their advocacy for a work of art to be recognised as an autonomous entity existing for its own sake. Therefore, the objective theory of literary criticism asserts that the work's value rises from its internal formal structure, that is, art-for-art's-sake.

Key Figures: T.S. Eliot, Chicago Neo-Aristotelians, John Crew Ransom

Traditional Literary Theories Comparison

Theory	Focus	Key Proponents	Main Principle
Mimetic	Art as imitation of reality	Plato, Aristotle	Literature represents real life
Pragmatic	Effect on reader	Sidney, Bentham, Fish	Literature should instruct and delight
Expressive	Artist's expression	Wordsworth, Romantics	Literature expresses inner feelings
Objective	Text itself	Eliot, Ransom	Art for art's sake

Modern Literary Theories

Modern literary theories build on the four traditional theories you have studied in the previous unit. The modern literary theories you will study in this chapter emanated from the four primary literary theories you have already learned about. Some contemporary literary theories combine elements from multiple traditional literary theories.

Relationship Between Traditional and Modern Theories

Traditional/Primary Literary Theories	Modern Literary Theories
Mimetic/Imitation	Post-colonial theory, Feminism and Marxism
Pragmatic	Post-colonial theory, Feminism, Social Learning Theory and Marxism
Expressive	Marxism, Post-colonial theory and Feminism
Objective	Formalism and Structuralism

In reading literary works, modern literary theories provide the reader with knowledge of different cultural, historical and sociological perspectives and the ability to situate a literary text's meaning within various contexts.

Formalism Theory

Activity 6.9

a) Read various online or library materials about formalism theory.

b) Explain the formalism theory based on the following headings:

• (i) Origin and development
• (ii) Focus
• (iii) Principles

Takeaways

Formalism is a modern theory that emerged during the first half of the 20th century. It is closely related to aestheticism, a literary and artistic movement in the 18th and 19th centuries that focused on the importance of the beauty of a literary text. Formalism focuses on a text's element of form in an objective manner. For formalists, the author's attitude towards reality is not necessary, but their attitude towards language is. While the materials of a literary text are feelings and thoughts, the author's focus has to be on how the qualities of elements of literature provide a text's aesthetic value and affect its delivery of meaning. For them, the purpose of a literary text is not to reflect reality but how it makes that reality perceived differently.

Critical Movements in Formalism:

Russian Formalism

Existed between the 1910s and 1930s. Propounded by Russian scholars, led by Viktor Shklovsky and was further expanded by members of the Prague Linguistic Circle.

New Criticism

A 20th century literary movement that emphasised close reading of a text. It was dominant in British and American literary traditions. Its proponents include I.A. Richards and T.S. Eliot.

Structuralism

A dominant movement in France in the 1950s and 1960s. It was initially developed to study languages, but it was later adapted for literary studies. Proponents included Claude Levi-Strauss, Roman Jakobson and Ferdinand de Saussure.

Principles of Formalism Theory

1. The primary focus of analysis is a text. In that regard, a text should be examined on the basis of its own internal structure and not in relation to external factors.
2. Form and style are inherent aspects of what a text means.
3. Close reading of a text is essential to the understanding a text. This suggests that textual details of a text can significantly contribute to the understanding of its meaning.
4. The author's biography and intentions are less valued in the process of understanding a text.

Marxism Theory

Activity 6.11

a) Read various online or library materials on Marxism.

b) Explain the theory of Marxism based on the following headings:

• (i) Origin and development
• (ii) Focus
• (iii) Principles

Takeaways

Marxism is a materialist theory that interprets the text, measuring it against the concrete, natural world around us and our society. It is based on Karl Marx's criticism of the inherent injustice in the European capitalist system of economics of the 19th century. Marx viewed society and history as progressing through the struggle between opposing forces, such as the oppressed and the oppressors. He opines that this struggle between opposing classes results in social transformations.

At the core of this theory are the social and political elements that inform a text, such as superstructure, class struggle, and oppression. In using this theory, literary critics examine class, oppression, power, economy and politics.

Principles of Marxism Theory

1. The struggle for freedom is an endless process.
2. Literary texts depict class oppression, strife and social inequality and, in turn, serve to critique elements of the capitalistic system.
3. Literary texts subvert and even overturn ordinary forms of social and political order.
4. Literary texts participate in or resist mass media and other popular and capitalistic culture forms.
5. The author's class, political positions, and other ideological positions influence their writings.
6. Literary texts might suggest possibilities for social revolution.
7. The ruling classes might manipulate possibilities for social revolution for social control over the other classes.

Post-colonial Theory

Activity 6.13

a) Read various online or library materials on post-colonial theory.

b) Explain the post-colonial theory based on the following headings:

• (i) Origin and development
• (ii) Focus
• (iii) Principles

Takeaways

Post-colonial theory is a cultural, intellectual, political, and literary movement of the 20th and 21st centuries characterised by the representation and analysis of historical experiences and challenging exploitative and discriminative practices. The theory critically reflects on the social, political, cultural, and economic effects of colonialism and imperialism. These effects are examined under the supposition that colonialism and imperialism impacted the colonised societies.

More than three-quarters of the people living in the world today have had their lives shaped by the experience of colonialism. Imperial Europe (Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and other nations) invaded and occupied many parts of the world, including the Americas, East Indies, India and Africa, from the 1450s to the 1950s.

Generally, a critic using post-colonial theory examines how the representation of cultural difference (how race, class, sex, gender, sexual orientation, religion, cultural beliefs, and customs combine to form individual identity) supports or challenges the colonial ideologies.

Principles of Post-colonial Theory

1. Re-examining the history of colonialism from the perspective of the colonised
2. Re-examining the economic, political, and cultural impact of colonialism on both the colonised peoples and the colonising powers
3. Analysing the process of decolonisation
4. Participating in the goals of political liberation, which include equal access to material resources and the contestation of forms of domination
5. Articulating political and cultural identities
6. Examining the representation of "othered" cultures
7. Examining how a literary text challenges or condones/approves colonisation and imperialism
8. Examining issues of hybridity (individuals and groups' identities belonging to more than one culture at the same time)
9. Perceiving marginality, plurality and 'otherness' as push factors for change in the society
10. Critiquing the social histories, cultural differences and political discrimination practised and normalised by colonial and imperial machinery

Feminism Theory

Activity 6.15

a) Read various online or library materials on feminism.

b) Explain the theory of feminism based on the following headings:

• (i) Origin and development
• (ii) Focus
• (iii) Principles

Takeaways

Four Waves of Feminism

First Wave (19th-early 20th centuries)

Involves liberal feminists such as Elizabeth Candy Stanton and Matilda Joslyn Gage. Focused on women's suffrage and legal rights.

Second Wave (1960s-1990s)

Grew out of anti-war and civil rights movements. Focused on sexuality, family, workplace, and reproductive rights.

Third Wave (1990s)

Mainly informed by post-colonial and post-modern thinking. Demands equal right for men and women in politics, decision-making, careers, and having children.

Fourth Wave (2010s-present)

Involves use of online platforms to protest against violence on women and children. Looks at gender representation in media, politics and influential structures.

Principles of Feminism Literary Criticism

1. Examining elements of texts, including gendered language
2. Examining stereotypical or unconventional portrayals of female characters
3. Studying works of female writers
4. Studying how gender, class and sexuality shape the depiction of characters in a story
5. Critiquing gender and gendered oppression

Assessment Questions

1. Explain the key differences between traditional and modern literary theories.
2. Apply formalist theory to analyse a poem or short story of your choice.
3. Which literary theory do you find most effective in analysing literary texts? Give reasons.
4. How does one's understanding of literary theories enhance his/her appreciation and interpretation of literary texts?
5. Use feminism theory to examine how a given text handles gender, race and ethnicity issues.
6. Perform an eco-critical analysis of a selected text and identify how it addresses environmental concerns.
7. With reference to any two readings you have read, use ideas from social learning theory to analyse how stories might teach their readers moral and human rights issues.
8. How can different readers' interpretations vary based on the theories they apply in the analysis?
9. Referring to Mimetic theory and examples from a story you read, justify the contention that authors do not just imitate; they imitate and represent things we know, aiming to change our perceptions about life.
10. Using ideas from mimetic and pragmatic theories, analyse how effective writers imitate to shape human behaviour.

Exercise: Theory Application

Select a literary text you have studied and analyze it using three different literary theories from this chapter. For each theory, address the following:

1. Briefly explain the main principles of the theory
2. Identify specific elements in the text that can be analyzed using this theory
3. Analyze how the theory helps reveal new meanings or perspectives in the text
4. Discuss the strengths and limitations of using this particular theory for your selected text
5. Compare the insights gained from each of the three theories

Chapter Seven: Critical Analysis of Pre-colonial and Colonial Literature

Introduction

Literary analysis is an activity that involves a close reading and interpretation of a literary text. We carry out literary analysis to identify meaning, which can be presented directly or indirectly. In this chapter, you will learn to apply modern literary theories to analyse pre-colonial and colonial literary texts. The competencies developed will enable you to critique several issues in pre-colonial and colonial literary texts using various theories.

How literary representation of pre-colonial and colonial circumstances can be subjected to modern literary theories?

Did you know?

Analysing a literary text by using a literary theory requires one to have knowledge of the procedures to follow and the principles of the theory to use. Here are the procedures for analysing a literary text:

1. Reading the text's title and working out its general meaning
2. Studying the book cover picture closely, if any, and suggesting what it represents
3. Reading a blurb (a short description giving information about the book) that appears at the back of a printed book
4. Reading the text and noting down all the details
5. Re-reading the text to trace and examine your first reading observations as well as assumptions and experiences you have about the text
6. Analysing literary texts' storylines (the occurrence of events) in order to understand the story's subject matter
7. Using the subject matter to determine the central theme and minor themes of the literary text
8. Formulating impressions about minor and major characters based on speeches, actions and other characters' comments about them, then relating them to the theme(s) of the literary text
9. Evaluating the language used by specifically paying attention to the choice of words, sentence structure, figurative language and tone used to convey meaning
10. Drawing conclusions, inferences and implications regarding life, experiences, paradoxical issues and the world at large through all the presentations in the literary text

These procedures are suggested to facilitate smooth and critical reading that will result in critical literary text analysis. You are advised to annotate your observations and unresolved questions during the analysis.

Applying Formalism Theory to Analyse the Form of Literary Texts

Critical analysis of literary text considers both form and content. In this section, you are introduced to the analysis of form through formalism theory.

Activity 7.1

Read a literary text and answer the following questions:

1. In what ways is beauty unveiled in the language of the literary text?
2. In what ways is beauty revealed in the overall structure of the literary text?
3. In what ways does the text creatively define or redefine the literary tradition it attributes to?

Activity 7.2

Read a literary text and answer the following questions:

1. Who is the main character?
2. How do you identify the main character?
3. Who are the minor characters? How are they depicted in relation to the main character?
4. What actions are performed by each of the characters?
5. How does language reveal the reasons/forces/motivations behind the characters' actions?
6. How are characters' actions and speeches, feelings and behaviour revealed in the text?
7. What techniques does the author use to reveal the character's views on life? Do their views differ from yours? Explain.
8. What techniques does the author use to depict characters' actions as believable or not? Explain.
9. How do the characters relate to each other? Does this relation affect the story's motion?
10. How do the characters' actions contribute to the meaning of the text?

Activity 7.3

Read a literary text and answer the following questions:

1. How are the physical or imaginary locations in which the events/actions occur represented?
2. How does the physical or imaginary location of that event/action contribute to the understanding and believability of the story?
3. What literary techniques reveal the atmosphere that surrounds the events/actions in the story?

Activity 7.4

Read a literary text and answer the following questions:

1. What is the social context of the story?
2. What is the historical context of the story?
3. What is the political context of the story?
4. What is the cultural context of the story?
5. How does each of these contexts contribute to the story's development?
6. How do these types of contexts determine behaviour, goals, actions and beliefs held by characters in the story?

Activity 7.5

Read a literary text and answer the following questions:

1. What is the controlling idea/issue of the story?
2. What are the other ideas/issues that relate to the main idea in the story?
3. What are other relevant ideas worth mentioning in the story?
4. How are the main and minor ideas represented in the story?
5. What conflicts are explicitly expressed in the story? How are they represented?
6. What literary techniques have been employed to express conflicts in the story?
7. How is the lesson conveyed/depicted in the story?

Activity 7.6

Read a literary text and answer the following questions:

1. Examine the arrangement of its events.
2. What are the actions/events that mark the beginning of the story?
3. What are the actions/events that mark the climax of the story? How are they depicted?
4. What are the actions/events that mark the end of the story?
5. How does the arrangement of events affect the story's development?
6. How are the difficulties the protagonist encounters in executing his/her duties depicted in the story?
7. What literary elements predict the future in the story?
8. Are there twists and turns in the course of the story? Explain.
9. What are the events that act as turning points in the characters' fortune/life? How are they portrayed?

Activity 7.7

a) Read a literary text and identify the figures of speech used in the text. Write the figures of speech, examples and the meaning they convey in the following table:

S/N	Figure of Speech	Example Expression	Meaning Conveyed
1
2
3

Applying Modern Literary Theories to Analyse the Content of Literary Texts

Literary texts do not just tell stories for pleasure; they also convey messages and express attitudes, beliefs and philosophies of a culture or society through character's actions and interactions. It should be noted that the focus of some of the modern theories is largely on thematic representation. Therefore, when using these theories, a reader should focus mostly on themes, messages, and lessons identified in the story.

Feminism Theory

Activity 7.8

Read a literary text and discuss the thematic representation based on the following aspects:

1. The representation of women in the story as survivors or victims
2. Gender freedom to express one's feelings and emotions
3. Socio-cultural relationships based on gender domination, oppression and subjugation
4. Self-realisation, such as awareness of individual power, capabilities and self-respect
5. The interaction between female and male characters
6. Sexual enslavement and oppression
7. Female actions and empowerment
8. Self-liberation from gender inequality under the patriarchy system

Marxism Theory

Activity 7.9

Read a literary text and discuss the thematic representation based on the following aspects:

1. The representation of socio-economic classes and statuses
2. Restriction or empowerment of characters
3. Representation of class struggle and its outcome
4. The relationship between the character and the state (superstructure)
5. The representation of characters from different races, cultural backgrounds, and socio-economic statuses (segregation or inclusion)

Post-colonial Theory

Activity 7.10

Read a literary text and discuss the thematic representation based on the following aspects:

1. The clash between native and Western culture and its results
2. Dichotomy (categorisation) of power and leadership
3. Cultural, religious, economic and social enslavement
4. Experiences of colonialism such as exploitation, slavery, land appropriation, forced labour, low wages, oppression and segregation
5. The relationship between the colonised and colonisers
6. Loss and reformation of identities
7. Consequences of African encounters with Europeans, such as hybridity and otherness
8. The reaction of natives towards colonialism and its evils (protest and resistance against colonialism)
9. The representation of disillusionment of the majority in post-colonial society

Eco-criticism Theory

Activity 7.11

Read a literary text and discuss the thematic representation based on the following aspects:

1. The author's view on nature and humanity
2. The representation of human behaviour and actions and their impact on nature
3. The representation of environmental challenges, along with logical solutions
4. The relationship between culture and nature
5. The contribution of characters towards environmental restoration

Social Learning Theory

Activity 7.12

Read a literary text and discuss the thematic representation based on the following aspects:

1. The characters who are role models for economic growth
2. The lesson that the main character learns from his/her interaction with other characters
3. The role of education in the society
4. The social, economic and political knowledge readers obtain from reading literary texts

Analysis Framework for Pre-colonial and Colonial Literature

Pre-colonial Literature Analysis

• Oral traditions and storytelling techniques
• Cultural values and community ethics
• Indigenous knowledge systems
• Spiritual and religious beliefs
• Social organization and governance
• Relationship with nature and environment

Colonial Literature Analysis

• Representation of colonial power dynamics
• Cultural clash and assimilation
• Resistance and accommodation
• Identity formation and crisis
• Language and cultural hegemony
• Economic exploitation themes

Discerning Lessons from Literary Texts

Activity 7.13

a) Read a literary text and answer the following questions:

1. What is the text about?
2. How are themes found in the text depicted to make readers learn?
3. What messages do you think the author intends to deliver to the audience?
4. How do characters' experiences reflect real-life situations?
5. What moral or ethical lessons can be drawn from the text?
6. How does the text contribute to your understanding of historical events or social issues?
7. What cultural insights does the text provide?
8. How can the lessons from the text be applied to contemporary society?

Comparative Analysis: Pre-colonial vs Colonial Literature

Aspect	Pre-colonial Literature	Colonial Literature
Primary Themes	Community, tradition, oral history, spiritual beliefs, nature	Cultural conflict, identity crisis, resistance, power dynamics, assimilation
Narrative Forms	Oral storytelling, folktales, proverbs, myths, legends	Written forms, novels, essays, poetry influenced by European traditions
Language Use	Indigenous languages, symbolic imagery, proverbial expressions	Colonial languages, code-switching, linguistic hybridity
Character Representation	Community-oriented characters, archetypal figures, ancestral heroes	Marginalized subjects, hybrid identities, resistance figures
Purpose/Function	Cultural preservation, moral instruction, community cohesion	Cultural negotiation, political commentary, identity assertion

Key Analytical Terms for Pre-colonial and Colonial Literature

Orality

The quality of being spoken or verbally transmitted rather than written

Hybridity

The mixing of cultures and identities resulting from colonial encounters

Othering

The process of defining and marginalizing people as fundamentally different

Cultural Hegemony

Domination of one cultural group over others through social institutions

Subaltern

Marginalized groups and perspectives excluded from established power structures

Mimicry

Colonized people's imitation of colonizers' culture, often with subtle resistance

Practical Application: Text Analysis Framework

Use this framework to analyze any pre-colonial or colonial literary text:

Step 1: Contextual Understanding

• Identify the historical period and cultural context
• Research the author's background and perspective
• Understand the socio-political circumstances

Step 2: Formal Analysis

• Examine narrative structure and literary devices
• Analyze character development and relationships
• Study language use and stylistic elements

Step 3: Theoretical Application

• Apply relevant literary theories (choose 2-3)
• Identify how each theory reveals different aspects
• Compare insights from different theoretical approaches

Step 4: Critical Interpretation

• Synthesize findings from different analyses
• Draw conclusions about themes and messages
• Relate text to broader historical and cultural issues

Assessment Questions

1. Select one pre-colonial literary text and analyze how it reflects the cultural values and social organization of its time using formalism theory.
2. Choose a colonial literary text and apply post-colonial theory to examine how it represents the relationship between colonizers and the colonized.
3. Compare and contrast the representation of women in one pre-colonial and one colonial literary text using feminist theory.
4. Analyze how environmental themes are treated in both pre-colonial and colonial literature using eco-criticism theory.
5. Using social learning theory, discuss what lessons contemporary readers can learn from pre-colonial literary texts.
6. Apply Marxist theory to analyze class dynamics in a colonial literary text of your choice.
7. How does the language used in colonial literature reflect the power dynamics of the colonial period?
8. Discuss how pre-colonial oral traditions influenced the development of written literature during the colonial period.
9. Analyze the concept of resistance in colonial literature using two different literary theories.
10. How can modern literary theories help us understand the continued relevance of pre-colonial literary texts today?

Exercise: Comparative Analysis

Select one pre-colonial text and one colonial text from your syllabus and complete the following comparative analysis:

Analysis Aspect	Pre-colonial Text	Colonial Text
Primary Themes
Representation of Culture
Character Development
Narrative Techniques
Language and Style
Social Commentary
Relevance to Contemporary Issues

Discussion Questions:

1. What are the most significant differences between how pre-colonial and colonial texts represent African societies?
2. How do the different historical contexts influence the themes and styles of these texts?
3. What continuities can you identify between pre-colonial and colonial literary traditions?
4. How do these texts contribute to our understanding of African literary history?

Chapter Eight: Building Rational Arguments and Judgement

Introduction

Developing the ability to construct rational arguments and make sound judgements is essential for literary analysis and critical thinking. This chapter focuses on the principles of logical reasoning, argument evaluation, and the application of these skills to literary texts. You will learn to identify premises and conclusions, evaluate arguments, refute weak reasoning, and build compelling arguments about characters' actions and themes in literature.

The importance of rational argumentation in literary criticism and analysis.

Principles of Rational Argument and Judgement

Fundamental Principles

Clarity

Arguments should be expressed clearly and precisely, avoiding ambiguity and vagueness.

Relevance

All premises and evidence must be directly relevant to the conclusion being drawn.

Sufficiency

Arguments must provide enough evidence to adequately support the conclusion.

Accuracy

All factual claims and evidence must be accurate and verifiable.

Fairness

Arguments should consider alternative perspectives and avoid distortion.

Logical Consistency

Arguments should be free from contradictions and follow logical patterns.

Activity 8.1: Identifying Argument Components

Read the following arguments from literary texts and identify the premises and conclusions:

Example 1:

"Okonkwo's tragic flaw was his fear of being perceived as weak like his father. This fear drove him to excessive displays of masculinity and violence. Therefore, his downfall was ultimately caused by his inability to balance traditional masculinity with compassion."

Premises: ________________________________

Conclusion: ________________________________

Example 2:

"The colonial education system aimed to create Africans who identified with European culture. Characters like Obi in 'No Longer at Ease' demonstrate this cultural confusion. Thus, colonialism's most damaging effect was psychological alienation."

Premises: ________________________________

Conclusion: ________________________________

Evaluating Arguments

Criteria for Argument Evaluation

Criterion	Questions to Ask	Application to Literary Analysis
Validity	Does the conclusion logically follow from the premises?	Does the interpretation follow from textual evidence?
Soundness	Are the premises true and the reasoning valid?	Is the evidence accurate and the interpretation logical?
Relevance	Is all evidence directly related to the claim?	Do textual examples actually support the thesis?
Sufficiency	Is there enough evidence to support the conclusion?	Are there multiple examples supporting the interpretation?
Clarity	Is the argument clearly expressed and unambiguous?	Is the literary analysis clearly communicated?

Activity 8.2: Argument Evaluation Practice

Evaluate the following literary arguments using the criteria above:

Argument A:

"All tragic heroes have fatal flaws. Okonkwo is a tragic hero. Therefore, Okonkwo must have a fatal flaw that causes his downfall."

Evaluation: ________________________________

Argument B:

"The river in 'The River Between' represents cultural division. Rivers often symbolize division in literature. Therefore, all rivers in African literature represent division."

Evaluation: ________________________________

Refuting Arguments

Strategies for Argument Refutation

Counter-examples

Provide specific examples that contradict the argument's claims.

Identifying Fallacies

Point out logical errors in reasoning.

Questioning Premises

Challenge the truth or relevance of the argument's foundations.

Alternative Interpretation

Offer a different, better-supported interpretation.

Common Logical Fallacies in Literary Analysis

Fallacy	Description	Example
Hasty Generalization	Drawing broad conclusions from insufficient evidence	"One character behaves this way, so all characters from that culture must be the same"
False Cause	Assuming causation from mere correlation	"The novel was published after independence, so it must be about independence"
Ad Hominem	Attacking the person instead of the argument	"The critic is Western, so their analysis of African literature must be wrong"
Appeal to Tradition	Claiming something is true because it's traditional	"This interpretation has been accepted for years, so it must be correct"
Straw Man	Misrepresenting an argument to make it easier to attack	"They think the character is entirely good, but nobody is perfect"

Activity 8.3: Fallacy Identification

Identify the logical fallacies in the following literary arguments:

1. "Every novel we've read this semester has strong female characters. Therefore, all African literature features strong female characters."
2. "The author grew up during colonialism, so every theme in their work must be about colonial resistance."
3. "That interpretation can't be right because the critic has never visited Africa."
4. "We've always interpreted this character as a villain, so that must be the correct interpretation."

Indicators of Premises and Conclusions

Common Indicator Words

Premise Indicators

• Since
• Because
• For
• As
• Given that
• Seeing that
• As shown by
• As indicated by

Conclusion Indicators

• Therefore
• Thus
• Hence
• So
• Consequently
• Accordingly
• It follows that
• This shows that

Activity 8.4: Identifying Argument Structure

Read literary criticism excerpts and:

1. Underline premise indicators
2. Circle conclusion indicators
3. Identify the main conclusion
4. List all premises
5. Evaluate the argument's strength

Discussing Characters' Actions

Framework for Analyzing Character Actions

Step 1: Describe the Action

Clearly state what the character did, using specific textual evidence.

Step 2: Identify Motivations

Examine why the character acted this way, considering:

• Personal beliefs and values
• External pressures and circumstances
• Psychological state and personality traits
• Cultural and social context

Step 3: Analyze Consequences

Evaluate the outcomes of the action for:

• The character themselves
• Other characters
• The overall plot development
• Thematic development

Step 4: Make Judgements

Form reasoned opinions about:

• Moral and ethical implications
• Consistency with character development
• Contribution to literary meaning
• Real-world relevance and lessons

Activity 8.5: Character Action Analysis

Select a significant action by a character from a literary text you have studied and analyze it using the framework above. Present your analysis as a structured argument with clear premises and conclusions.

Discussing Themes

Constructing Theme-Based Arguments

Theme Identification

• Identify recurring ideas and patterns
• Note significant conflicts and resolutions
• Analyze character development arcs
• Examine symbolic elements

Evidence Gathering

• Collect relevant quotations
• Note specific scenes and events
• Consider character dialogues
• Analyze narrative commentary

Argument Construction

• State the theme clearly
• Present supporting evidence
• Explain how evidence supports the theme
• Address potential counterarguments

Significance Analysis

• Connect to broader context
• Discuss relevance to readers
• Consider author's purpose
• Explore universal applications

Critical Thinking in Literary Analysis

Thinking Skill	Application to Literature	Example Questions
Analysis	Breaking down texts into components and relationships	How do different elements work together to create meaning?
Evaluation	Assessing the quality and effectiveness of literary elements	How successfully does the author develop this theme?
Inference	Drawing conclusions based on textual evidence	What can we infer about the character's motivations?
Interpretation	Explaining the meaning and significance of literary elements	What does this symbol represent in the context of the story?
Explanation	Clearly articulating understanding and reasoning	How does the evidence support this interpretation?

Activity 8.6: Theme Argument Construction

Select a major theme from a literary text and construct a well-reasoned argument about:

1. How the theme is developed throughout the text
2. What the text suggests about this theme
3. Why this theme is significant
4. How different literary elements contribute to the theme

Ensure your argument includes clear premises, evidence, and conclusions.

Assessment Questions

1. Construct a rational argument analyzing the moral choices made by a protagonist in a literary text of your choice. Ensure your argument includes clear premises and conclusions.
2. Evaluate the strength of this argument: "All post-colonial literature is protest literature because it was written after colonialism and addresses colonial experiences."
3. Identify and explain three logical fallacies that commonly appear in literary analysis, providing original examples for each.
4. Select a significant action by an antagonist in a literary text and construct an argument defending or criticizing this action using textual evidence.
5. Compare two different interpretations of the same theme in a literary text, evaluating which interpretation is better supported by evidence.
6. Refute the following argument using appropriate strategies: "Female characters in traditional African literature are always portrayed as submissive and powerless."
7. Construct a complex argument about how setting contributes to theme development in a novel you have studied.
8. Analyze how a character's transformation throughout a literary text supports or challenges a major theme.
9. Evaluate the reasoning in a piece of literary criticism you have read, identifying strengths and weaknesses in the argumentation.
10. Develop a counter-argument to a common interpretation of a literary text you have studied, providing textual evidence for your alternative reading.

Exercise: Building a Comprehensive Literary Argument

Select a literary text and develop a comprehensive argument about one of its central themes. Structure your argument as follows:

1. Thesis Statement

Clearly state your main argument about the theme.

2. Supporting Premises

Present 3-4 main premises that support your thesis, each with:

• Clear statement of the premise
• Specific textual evidence
• Explanation of how evidence supports the premise

3. Counterargument Consideration

Address one potential counterargument:

• State the counterargument fairly
• Provide rebuttal evidence
• Explain why your argument is stronger

4. Conclusion

Summarize your argument and discuss its significance:

• Restate main conclusion
• Highlight key evidence
• Discuss broader implications

5. Self-Evaluation

Evaluate your own argument using the criteria learned in this chapter.

Key Takeaways

• Rational arguments require clear premises, logical reasoning, and sufficient evidence
• Literary analysis benefits from structured argumentation and critical thinking
• Identifying and avoiding logical fallacies strengthens literary criticism
• Character actions and themes can be analyzed through systematic argumentation
• Effective literary arguments consider multiple perspectives and counterarguments
• Critical thinking skills enhance both the creation and evaluation of literary analysis

Chapter Nine: The Principles of Composing Literary Texts

Introduction

Creative writing is an art form that allows individuals to express ideas, emotions, and experiences through carefully crafted language. This chapter explores the fundamental principles of composing literary texts, focusing on children's literature, adult literature, and the specific processes for creating short stories. You will learn about audience considerations, narrative techniques, and the step-by-step process of bringing literary ideas to life.

The art and craft of transforming creative ideas into structured literary works.

Children's Literature

Understanding Children's Literature

Children's literature encompasses written works and accompanying illustrations produced to entertain or instruct young people. This genre considers the developmental stages, interests, and comprehension levels of young readers.

Age Group Considerations

Picture Books (Ages 3-7)

• Simple, repetitive language
• Vivid illustrations
• Basic moral lessons
• Limited text per page
• Rhyming and rhythm

Early Readers (Ages 6-9)

• Short chapters
• Larger font size
• Simple vocabulary
• Clear plot structure
• Relatable characters

Middle Grade (Ages 8-12)

• More complex plots
• Character development
• Themes of friendship and identity
• Longer narratives
• Age-appropriate challenges

Young Adult (Ages 13-18)

• Complex themes
• Sophisticated language
• Coming-of-age stories
• Emotional depth
• Social issues exploration

Key Characteristics of Children's Literature

Characteristic	Description	Examples
Age Appropriateness	Content and language suitable for the target age group	Simple sentences for early readers
Educational Value	Teaches moral lessons, social skills, or knowledge	Stories about sharing, honesty, or friendship
Engaging Elements	Features that capture and maintain children's interest	Rhyme, repetition, humor, adventure
Positive Resolution	Problems are resolved in a hopeful or constructive manner	Characters learn and grow from experiences
Cultural Relevance	Reflects diverse experiences and perspectives	Stories from different cultural backgrounds

Activity 9.1: Analyzing Children's Literature

Select two children's books from different age categories and analyze them based on:

1. Language complexity and vocabulary
2. Plot structure and narrative techniques
3. Character development
4. Themes and moral lessons
5. Visual elements (if applicable)
6. Cultural representation

Write a comparative analysis discussing how each book is tailored to its specific age group.

Adult Literature

Understanding Adult Literature

Adult literature addresses mature themes and complex human experiences, exploring the depth and complexity of human relationships, societal issues, and philosophical questions. This genre assumes a level of life experience and emotional maturity in its readers.

Literary Fiction

• Character-driven narratives
• Exploration of human condition
• Complex themes and symbolism
• Emphasis on beautiful language
• Ambiguous or open endings

Genre Fiction

• Plot-driven stories
• Specific conventions and tropes
• Entertainment-focused
• Clear narrative structure
• Satisfying resolutions

Children's vs. Adult Literature: Key Differences

Aspect	Children's Literature	Adult Literature
Themes	Simple, clear moral lessons; hopeful outlook	Complex, ambiguous themes; explores moral gray areas
Language	Simple vocabulary; straightforward syntax	Complex vocabulary; sophisticated sentence structures
Character Development	Clear distinctions between good and evil	Complex, flawed characters with moral ambiguity
Plot Structure	Linear, predictable progression; happy endings	Non-linear possible; ambiguous or tragic endings
Reader Expectations	Entertainment and moral instruction	Intellectual stimulation and emotional depth

Activity 9.2: Audience Analysis

Select one literary text intended for children and one for adults. Compare and contrast how each text addresses similar themes (e.g., friendship, courage, loss) differently based on their target audience. Consider:

• Language complexity and style
• Depth of character development
• Complexity of themes
• Narrative techniques
• Resolution of conflicts

Principles/Processes of Composing Short Stories

The Creative Writing Process

Composing effective short stories involves a structured approach that balances creative inspiration with disciplined craft. The process typically follows these stages:

1. Inspiration and Idea Generation

Finding compelling ideas that can be developed into stories:

• Drawing from personal experiences
• Observing people and situations
• Exploring "what if" scenarios
• Responding to current events
• Reimagining traditional stories

2. Planning and Pre-writing

Developing the initial idea into a workable story structure:

Character Development

Creating believable, multidimensional characters

Setting Creation

Establishing time, place, and atmosphere

Plot Structuring

Outlining the sequence of events

Theme Identification

Determining the central message or insight

Point of View Selection

Choosing the narrative perspective

Conflict Establishment

Identifying the central problem or tension

3. Drafting

Writing the initial version of the story:

• Focus on getting ideas down without excessive editing
• Develop scenes and dialogue
• Establish narrative voice and tone
• Build toward the climax and resolution

4. Revision

Improving and refining the draft:

• Strengthening character development
• Enhancing plot coherence
• Improving pacing and structure
• Deepening thematic elements
• Refining language and style

5. Editing and Polishing

Final adjustments for publication:

• Correcting grammar and spelling
• Improving sentence structure
• Ensuring consistency
• Final proofreading

Steps for Composing Short Stories

Detailed Step-by-Step Guide

Step 1: Conceptualization

Brainstorming Techniques:

• Freewriting: Write continuously for 10-15 minutes without stopping
• Mind Mapping: Create visual diagrams of connected ideas
• Character First: Develop an interesting character and build a story around them
• Situation Based: Start with an interesting situation or conflict
• Theme Driven: Begin with a theme you want to explore

Step 2: Character Development

Creating Believable Characters:

Aspect	Development Questions	Techniques
Physical Traits	What do they look like? How do they move?	Create character sketches; use specific, revealing details
Personality	What are their key traits? What are their flaws?	Show through actions and dialogue; avoid direct description
Background	Where do they come from? What past experiences shape them?	Develop backstory that influences current behavior
Motivations	What do they want? What are they afraid of?	Create clear desires and fears that drive actions
Relationships	How do they interact with others? What conflicts exist?	Develop dynamics that reveal character traits

Step 3: Plot Construction

Building Narrative Structure:

Exposition

• Introduce main characters
• Establish setting
• Set up initial situation
• Create narrative hook

Rising Action

• Develop central conflict
• Build tension and suspense
• Introduce complications
• Develop character arcs

Climax

• Highest point of tension
• Major confrontation
• Turning point for characters
• Central conflict resolution

Falling Action

• Events after climax
• Loose ends tied up
• Consequences revealed
• Movement toward conclusion

Step 4: Setting and Atmosphere

Creating Vivid Environments:

• Sensory Details: Use all five senses to bring settings to life
• Specificity: Choose concrete, specific details over vague descriptions
• Mood Creation: Use setting to establish emotional tone
• Symbolic Elements: Incorporate elements that reinforce themes
• Cultural Context: Reflect the social and historical background

Step 5: Dialogue Creation

Crafting Effective Dialogue:

Function	Techniques	Common Pitfalls
Reveal character	Use distinctive speech patterns and vocabulary	All characters sounding the same
Advance plot	Include information that moves story forward	Excessive exposition in dialogue
Create conflict	Show characters with opposing goals or views	Arguing without purpose
Establish relationships	Show dynamics through how characters speak to each other	Unrealistic familiarity or formality
Provide subtext	What characters don't say can be as important as what they do say	Characters saying exactly what they mean

Essential Writing Techniques

Show, Don't Tell

Instead of stating emotions or characteristics, demonstrate them through actions, dialogue, and sensory details.

Example: Instead of "She was angry," write "Her hands trembled as she crumpled the paper."

Use Active Voice

Prefer active constructions that create stronger, more direct sentences.

Example: Instead of "The ball was thrown by the boy," write "The boy threw the ball."

Vary Sentence Structure

Mix short, medium, and long sentences to create rhythm and maintain reader interest.

Example: Combine simple sentences with complex ones for better flow.

Create Specificity

Use concrete, specific details rather than vague, general descriptions.

Example: Instead of "a car," write "a rusted blue pickup truck."

Activity 9.3: Short Story Planning

Develop a complete plan for an original short story using the following template:

Story Element	Your Development
Central Idea/Theme
Main Characters
Setting
Central Conflict
Plot Outline
Point of View
Key Scenes
Resolution

Assessment Questions

1. Compare and contrast the key considerations when writing for children versus adults, providing specific examples for each audience.
2. Develop a detailed character sketch for a protagonist in a short story, including physical description, personality traits, background, motivations, and flaws.
3. Create a plot outline for a short story that includes exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.
4. Write a scene that demonstrates the principle of "show, don't tell" in character development.
5. Analyze how setting can contribute to theme development in a short story, providing specific examples.
6. Compose a dialogue exchange between two characters that reveals their relationship and advances the plot.
7. Explain how point of view choice affects reader experience in a short story, comparing first-person and third-person perspectives.
8. Develop a revision plan for improving a draft short story, identifying specific areas for improvement and techniques for revision.
9. Create a writer's guide for maintaining cultural authenticity when writing about communities different from your own.
10. Design a complete short story plan that incorporates all the elements discussed in this chapter.

Exercise: Complete Short Story Development

Follow these steps to develop a complete short story from conception to final plan:

Part 1: Idea Generation (30 minutes)

Brainstorm three different story ideas using different techniques (character-first, situation-based, theme-driven). Select the strongest idea for development.

Part 2: Character Development (45 minutes)

Create detailed profiles for your main character and at least two supporting characters, including:

• Physical appearance and mannerisms
• Personality traits and flaws
• Background and experiences
• Motivations and desires
• Relationships with other characters

Part 3: Plot and Structure (60 minutes)

Develop a complete plot outline including:

• Exposition: How the story begins
• Inciting incident: What starts the main action
• Rising action: Key events and complications
• Climax: The turning point or highest tension
• Falling action: Events after the climax
• Resolution: How the story ends

Part 4: Setting and Atmosphere (30 minutes)

Describe the main settings of your story and how they contribute to:

• Mood and tone
• Character development
• Thematic elements
• Plot advancement

Part 5: Writing Sample (45 minutes)

Write the opening scene of your story (approximately 500 words) that:

• Establishes the main character
• Introduces the setting
• Creates narrative hook
• Sets up the central conflict
• Demonstrates your writing style

Key Takeaways

• Children's and adult literature require different approaches to theme, language, and character development
• Effective short story writing follows a structured process from idea generation to final polishing
• Character development involves creating multidimensional figures with clear motivations and flaws
• Plot construction requires careful attention to narrative structure and pacing
• Setting and atmosphere contribute significantly to mood and thematic development
• Dialogue should reveal character, advance plot, and create subtext
• Revision is an essential part of the writing process, focusing on both big-picture and detail-level improvements
• Cultural authenticity and specific details enhance the believability and impact of literary works

Chapter Ten: Composing Original Literary Texts

Introduction

This chapter marks the culmination of your literary studies, focusing on the practical application of creative writing skills. You will learn to plan, compose, and potentially publish your own original literary works. This process transforms theoretical knowledge into creative practice, allowing you to contribute your unique voice to the literary world.

From literary analysis to literary creation: Becoming an active contributor to the world of literature.

Planning for Composing Short Stories

Comprehensive Story Planning Framework

Concept Development

Character Creation

Plot Structuring

Setting Design

Theme Integration

1. Concept Development and Brainstorming

Idea Generation Techniques

• Personal Experiences: Draw from significant life events
• Observation: People-watching and real-life situations
• News Stories: Current events as inspiration
• Historical Events: Reimagining past occurrences
• What-If Scenarios: Exploring alternative possibilities

Concept Refinement

• Define the core conflict
• Identify the central theme
• Determine the target audience
• Establish the narrative tone
• Clarify the story's purpose

2. Character Development Matrix

Character Type	Development Elements	Questions to Answer
Protagonist	Goals, motivations, flaws, growth arc	What does the character want? What are they afraid of?
Antagonist	Opposing goals, justification, complexity	Why do they oppose the protagonist? Are they purely evil?
Supporting Characters	Function in plot, relationship to main characters	How do they help or hinder the protagonist?
Character Relationships	Dynamics, conflicts, evolution	How do relationships change throughout the story?

3. Detailed Plot Architecture

Exposition

Establish setting, characters, and initial situation

Inciting Incident

Event that disrupts the status quo

Rising Action

Series of complications and developments

Climax

Highest point of tension and conflict

Falling Action

Events following the climax

Resolution

Final outcome and character reflections

Activity 10.1: Comprehensive Story Planning

Develop a complete story plan using the following detailed template:

Planning Element	Your Development
Story Concept (25 words or less)
Central Theme and Message
Target Audience and Age Group
Narrative Point of View
Main Characters (with brief descriptions)
Setting Details (time, place, atmosphere)
Central Conflict
Plot Summary (scene by scene)
Key Dialogue or Scene Ideas
Intended Emotional Impact

Composing Short Stories

The Writing Process: From Plan to Prose

1. The Opening: Hooking Your Reader

Effective Opening Strategies:

Action Opening

Start in the middle of action or conflict

Example: "The gun felt cold and heavy in her hands as she crouched behind the crumbling wall."

Character Introduction

Begin with a compelling character moment

Example: "Maya had always been able to tell when someone was lying, a skill that made her both valuable and lonely."

Atmospheric Opening

Establish mood and setting immediately

Example: "The fog rolled in from the sea, swallowing the village whole in its damp, gray embrace."

Mystery Opening

Pose a question that demands answering

Example: "The first time I died was on a Tuesday, which seemed unfair since I'd always preferred Fridays."

2. Scene Construction Techniques

Scene Element	Writing Technique	Purpose
Setting Description	Use specific sensory details	Create vivid mental images and establish atmosphere
Character Action	Show personality through physical movement	Reveal character traits without direct description
Dialogue	Use distinctive voices and subtext	Advance plot and reveal relationships
Internal Monologue	Reveal character thoughts and emotions	Create reader empathy and understanding
Pacing	Vary sentence length and structure	Control reading speed and build tension

3. Maintaining Narrative Momentum

Building Tension

• Create uncertainty about outcomes
• Introduce time pressure
• Develop rising stakes
• Use cliffhangers effectively
• Balance action with reflection

Character Arc Development

• Show gradual change over time
• Create meaningful turning points
• Demonstrate internal conflict
• Show relationships evolving
• Reveal new aspects of character

Advanced Writing Techniques

Subtext in Dialogue

What characters don't say can be as important as what they do say. Use pauses, changes in subject, and indirect responses to create depth.

Example: "Are you coming to the meeting?" she asked. He studied his coffee cup. "The weather's turning cold," he said finally.

Symbolic Motifs

Use recurring images, objects, or phrases to reinforce themes and create cohesion.

Example: A broken watch appearing at key moments to symbolize lost time or missed opportunities.

Foreshadowing

Plant subtle clues that prepare readers for future events without giving away surprises.

Example: Mentioning a character's fear of water before a crucial river-crossing scene.

Controlling Pacing

Use sentence structure and chapter breaks to speed up or slow down the narrative flow.

Example: Short, choppy sentences for action scenes; longer, flowing sentences for reflection.

Activity 10.2: Scene Writing Practice

Write three different versions of the same scene using different techniques:

Scene 1: Dialogue Focus

Write a scene where two characters have an argument, focusing entirely on dialogue and minimal description. Show their relationship and conflict through what they say and how they say it.

Scene 2: Description Focus

Write a scene where a character explores a new environment. Use rich sensory details to create atmosphere and reveal the character's emotional state through their observations.

Scene 3: Action Focus

Write a scene where a character faces a physical challenge. Use active verbs and varied sentence structures to create a sense of urgency and movement.

Composing and Publishing Short Stories

The Path to Publication

1. Revision and Editing Process

Structural Revision

• Check plot coherence and pacing
• Ensure character consistency
• Verify theme development
• Assess scene transitions
• Evaluate beginning and ending

Line Editing

• Improve sentence flow
• Eliminate wordiness
• Strengthen word choice
• Check for clarity
• Ensure variety in sentence structure

Proofreading

• Correct grammar and spelling
• Check punctuation
• Verify consistency in formatting
• Eliminate typographical errors
• Ensure proper dialogue formatting

Beta Reading

• Get feedback from trusted readers
• Ask specific questions about clarity
• Note confusing or slow sections
• Check emotional impact
• Identify plot holes or inconsistencies

2. Publication Pathways

Publication Type	Description	Considerations
Literary Magazines/Journals	Print or online publications featuring short stories	Competitive, specific themes, build writing credentials
Writing Competitions	Contests with prizes for best stories	Entry fees may apply, specific guidelines, prestige
Online Platforms	Websites and apps for sharing stories	Immediate audience, feedback, building readership
School Publications	School newspapers, magazines, or anthologies	Supportive environment, local recognition
Self-Publishing	Publishing your own work independently	Full creative control, marketing responsibility

3. Submission Guidelines and Professionalism

Submission Checklist

• ✓ Research the publication's style and preferences
• ✓ Follow submission guidelines exactly
• ✓ Write a professional cover letter
• ✓ Proofread your submission thoroughly
• ✓ Keep track of submission dates and responses
• ✓ Be prepared for rejection and revision requests
• ✓ Maintain professional correspondence
• ✓ Respect response times and follow-up politely

Activity 10.3: Publication Preparation

Prepare one of your completed short stories for potential publication:

Part 1: Final Revision

Conduct a comprehensive revision of your story, focusing on:

• Plot coherence and pacing
• Character development and consistency
• Language and style improvements
• Dialogue effectiveness
• Thematic clarity

Part 2: Formatting for Submission

Format your story according to standard submission guidelines:

• Double-spaced text
• 12-point Times New Roman or similar font
• 1-inch margins on all sides
• Page numbers and contact information
• Proper dialogue formatting

Part 3: Cover Letter Writing

Draft a professional cover letter including:

• Brief introduction and story title
• Short story summary (2-3 sentences)
• Relevant writing background or publications
• Professional closing and contact information

Project Work

Final Creative Writing Project

This comprehensive project will guide you through creating a complete, polished short story from conception to final draft.

Project Timeline (6-8 weeks)

Week 1-2: Planning and Development

• Brainstorm multiple story ideas
• Select and refine the strongest concept
• Develop detailed character profiles
• Create comprehensive plot outline
• Establish setting and thematic elements

Week 3-5: Drafting and Initial Revision

• Write complete first draft
• Focus on getting the story down
• Don't worry about perfection initially
• Complete scene-by-scene writing
• Ensure beginning, middle, and end are developed

Week 6: Structural Revision

• Read through entire draft for big-picture issues
• Check plot logic and character consistency
• Assess pacing and scene effectiveness
• Identify areas needing expansion or cutting
• Get feedback from peers or teacher

Week 7: Line Editing and Refinement

• Improve sentence-level writing
• Strengthen word choice and imagery
• Enhance dialogue and description
• Refine narrative voice and style
• Check for clarity and impact

Week 8: Final Polishing and Submission

• Proofread for grammar and spelling
• Format according to guidelines
• Prepare final version
• Write author's reflection
• Submit completed project

Project Assessment Criteria

Criteria	Excellent (A)	Good (B)	Satisfactory (C)
Originality and Creativity	Highly original concept with unique perspective	Creative approach with some original elements	Basic story idea with limited originality
Character Development	Complex, believable characters with clear arcs	Well-developed characters with some depth	Basic character development present
Plot Structure	Engaging, well-paced plot with effective tension	Clear plot structure with good pacing	Basic plot structure with some pacing issues
Language and Style	Sophisticated language with strong voice and style	Good use of language with clear style	Basic language use with limited style
Thematic Depth	Complex themes explored with subtlety and insight	Clear themes developed throughout story	Basic thematic elements present
Technical Accuracy	Virtually error-free with professional formatting	Minor errors with good formatting	Multiple errors affecting readability

Final Exercise: Author's Reflection

After completing your short story, write a 500-700 word reflection discussing:

Part 1: Creative Process

Describe your journey from initial idea to finished story:

• How did your story concept evolve?
• What was most challenging about the writing process?
• Which elements came most naturally?
• How did planning help or hinder your creativity?

Part 2: Literary Techniques

Analyze your use of literary elements:

• How did you develop your characters?
• What narrative techniques did you employ?
• How did you handle pacing and structure?
• What themes emerged in your writing?

Part 3: Personal Growth

Reflect on what you learned about writing and yourself:

• What did this project teach you about creative writing?
• How has your understanding of literature changed?
• What would you do differently next time?
• How will you continue developing as a writer?

Key Takeaways

• Effective story planning involves detailed character development, plot structuring, and thematic integration
• The writing process moves from rough draft through multiple revisions to polished final version
• Advanced writing techniques include subtext, symbolism, foreshadowing, and controlled pacing
• Publication requires professional preparation, including proper formatting and submission etiquette
• The creative writing process involves both inspiration and disciplined craft
• Revision is where good writing becomes great writing through careful refinement
• Understanding your strengths and weaknesses as a writer enables continuous improvement
• Every writer develops their own unique process and voice through practice and reflection